Psychology : Memory, Thinking and Intelligence

1. MEMORY, THINKING AND
INTELLIGENCE

2. • Memory is an organism’s ability to store,
retain and subsequently retrieve information.
• Memory is one of the most important
cognitive functions , yet one of the easiest to
overlook.
What is memory?

3. The Process of Memory
• Information must be put into memory before any
piece of information can be remembered
• From an information processing perspective,
there are three main stage in the formation and
retrieval of memory:
• 1. Encoding or Registration
• 2. Storage
• 3. Retrieval or Recall

4. Encoding or Registration
• Encoding or Registration is the processing and
combining of received information.
• The process of encoding need not be
deliberate one wherein a person tries to
commit something to memory by rehearsal.
• Instead encoding happens even without a
person’s awareness.

5. Storage
• Storage is the creation of permanent record of
the encoded information
• This process involves maintaining the coded
information within the memory system.
• Many pieces of information are stored over long
period of time.

6. Retrieval or recall
• Retrieval or recall is calling back the stored
information in response to some cue for use in
process or activity
• This is the final process of memory that involves
finding the information in storage and then
bringing to awareness or consciousness

7. Reasons we cannot remember a piece
of information
A. information was not encoded or was not
encoded properly.
B. The information was lost in the storage; and
C. The information could not be retrieve from
storage , or any of these three.

8. Classification of Memory
• Sensory memory corresponds approximately to
the initial 200 – 500 millisecond after an item is
perceived.
• The ability to look at item, and remember what it
look like with just a second of observation, or
memorization, is an example of sensory memory

9. Classification of Memory
• Short-term memory.
• Some of the information in the sensory
memory is then transferred to short term
memory. Short-term memory allows one to
recall to as long as a minute without
rehearsal.
• Its capacity is also limited

10. Classification of Memory
• Long-term. The storage in sensory memory and
short-term memory have a strictly limited
capacity and duration, which means that
information is available for a certain period of
time, but is not retained indefinitely.
• In contrast, long-term memory can store much
larger quantities of information for potentially
unlimited duration( sometimes a whole lifespan)

11. The Systems of Memory
• There are models of memory that provide
abstract representations of how memory is
believed to work. These models are proposed
over the years by various psychologists.
• 1. Multi-store or Atskinson-Shiffrin memory
model
• 2. Working memory
• 3. Levels of processing

12. The Systems of Memory
• 1. Multi-store or Atskinson-Shiffrin memory model
was first recognized in 1968 by Atkinson and Shiffrin.
The multi-store model has been criticized for being
too simplistic
• For example , long-term memory is believed to be
actually made up of multiple subcomponents, such
as episodic and procedural memory
• It also propose that rehearsal is the only mechanism
by which information eventually reaches long term
storage, but evidence shows that it is capable of
remembering things without rehearsal.

13. The Systems of Memory
• Working memory was proposed by Baddeley
and Hitch (1974) which replaced the concept
of general short term memory with specific,
active components
• Working memory consists of three basic
stores: the central executive; the phonological
loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad.

14. Working Memory
A. Central executive essentially acts as an
attention, it channels information, to three
component processes: the phonological loop,
the visuo- spatial sketchpad and the episodic
buffer.
B. Phonological loop stores auditory information
by silently rehearsing sounds or words in a
continues loop; the articulatory process (“the
inner voice”) continuously “speaks” the words to
the phonological store(“the inner ear”)

15. Working Memory
• C. Visio-spatial sketchpad stores visual and
spatial information.it is engaged when
performing spatial task (such as judging
distances) or visual ones.

16. Levels of Processing
• Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed that it he
method and depth of processing that affect
how an experience is stored in the memory,
rather than rehearsal.
a. Organization. Mandler (1967) gave
participants a pack of word card and asked
them to sort them into any number of piles
using any system of objects.

17. Levels of Processing
b. Distinctiveness . Eyesenck and Eyesenck (1980)
asked participants to say words in adistinctive
way, e.g., spell the words out loud. Such
participants recalled the words better than those
who simply read them off a list.
c. Effort. Tyler, et al (1979) had participants solve a
series of anagrams, some easy (FAHTER) and
some difficult (HREFAT). The participants recalled
the anagrams better, presumably because they
put more effort into them.

18. Strategies for improving memory
1. Biological ways.
Biologically, the best way to improve memory
seems to be to increase the supply of oxygen to
the brain.
1. Cognitive Strategies
There are several principles that are relevant to
improve your memory about different things.
Relevant to this concern include elaborative
rehearsal, level of processing, organization and
chunking, encoding, minimizing interference and
detection of discrepant information

19. Strategies for improving memory
For instance , the technique using the short-cuts
like SMART(specific, measurable, attainable,
responsive and time bounded) to remember the
systems of objective
The SQ3R process involves five steps, : Survey,
Question, Read, Recite and Review each
promote more extensive processing of the
material being read.

20. THINKING
• mental behavior wherein ideas, pictures,
cognitive symbolizations, or other
hypothetical components of thought are
experienced or manipulated.
• In this sense, thinking is inclusive of
imagining, recalling, solving problems, free
association, daydreaming, concept formation,
and a variety of other procedures.

21. THINKING
• Thinking is a mental process that allows a
person to model the world and to deal with it
affectively to according to their goals, plans,
ends and desires.
• Moreover, thinking involves the cerebral
manipulation of information, as one from
concepts , engage in problem solving, reason
and make decisions.

22. KINDS OF THINKING
• Thinking can be classifies into two: associated
thinking and directed thinking.
• Associative thinking .This kind of thinking is
uncontrolled or indirect. Some examples of
associative thinking are as follows:
1. Autistic thinking
(day dreaming).This thinking consists of personal
needs or satisfaction. The term autistic was
derived from the Greek word “autos” which
means self.

23. Associative thinking
2. Nightdreaming.
One of the most controversial interpretation
of night dreaming is based from Freud’s
theory. According to him, dream is one way to
tap the unconscious part of the mind. The
content of our dream from the point of view
of a psychoanalysis has two types: the latent
and manifest content.

24. Associative thinking
A. Latent. The hidden content of our dreams, or
the interpretation of the manifest content.
B. Manifest content. The visible content of the
dreams as it occurs to the dreamer.
3. Eidetic imagery. The commonly called
photographic memory.

25. Directed thinking
• B. Directed thinking. This kind of thinking is
directed toward a particular goal.
Examples of the Directed thinking are as
follows:
1. Critical thinking. It involves in evaluation and
judgment.
2. Creative thinking. Producing new forms of
ideas to solve a particular problem.

26. Directed thinking
3. Brainstorming.
Exchanging of ideas to form a solution to a
problem or in decision making.
4. Problem Solving.
It is the process of utilizing available
materials, information and existing method to
reach a solution.

27. Steps in Problem Solving
1. Awareness of the problem
2. Identification of the problem
3. Generating alternatives
4. Selecting the best form of alternatives
5. Making hierarchical plan
6. Implementing the plan

28. Aids to thinking
The following can help you to process your
thinking
• 1. Use of models, symbols, diagrams and pictures.
• 2. Use of abstraction to simplify the effort of
thinking
• 3. Use of metasyntactic variables to simplify the
effort of naming
• 4. Use of iteration and recursion to converge on a
concept.
• 5. Limitation of attention to aid concentration and
focus on a concept.

29. Aids to thinking
• 6. Use of peace and quiet to aid concentration.
• 7. Goal setting and goal revision, Simply letting
the concept percolate in the subconscious, and
waiting for the concept to re-surface.
• 8. Talking with like-minded people. Resorting to
communication with others, if it is allowed.
• 9. Working backward from the goal
• 10. Desire for learning.

30. INTELLIGENCE
What is Intelligence ?
Intelligence is the ability to understand complex
ideas, to adopt effectively to the environment,
to learn from experience, to engage to various
forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by
taking thought.
-According to American
Psychological Association in 1995.

31. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
• THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
• Theories of intelligence hold that intelligence
can be measured by intelligence tests.
• but some researchers are dissatisfied with
that notion and argue that intelligence test is
not enough to define intelligence

32. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
• HOWARD GARDNER’S THEORY OF MULTIPLE
INTELLIGENCES
• INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE- ability to
understand the feelings and intentions of others.
• INTRAPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE- ability to
understand one’s own feelings and motivations
• LINGUISTIC INTELLIGENCE- ability to effectively
manipulate language to express oneself
rhetorically or poetically.

33. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
• LOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL INTELLIGENCE- ability to
detect patterns, reason persuasively and think
logically.
• E. MUSICAL INTELLIGENCE- capacity to recognize and
compose musical pitches, tones and rhythms.
• NATURALIST INTELLIGENCE-enables human being to
recognize, categorize and draw upon certain features
of the environment.
• SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE- ability to manipulate and
create mental images in order to solve problems
• BODILY-KINESTHETIC INTELLIGENCE-ability to use
one’s mental abilities to coordinate one’s own bodily
movement.

34. TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE
• 2. TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE BY
ROBET STERNBERG’S
• Intelligence has three fundamental aspects,
the analytic, creative and practical (good at
problem solving) He suggested that there must
be a balance of the three mentioned aspects.

35. THURSTONE’S MULTIFACTOR THEORY
• THURSTONE’S MULTIFACTOR THEORY
• This theory was formulated by an American
psychologist LOUIS L. THURTONE. He stressed
that individual have at least seven primary
mental abilities namely: verbal ability, number,
spatial, perpetual, memory, reasoning and
word fluency

36. MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION OF
INTELLIGENCE
• One of the most widely used instruments to
measure and evaluate intelligence is by means
of intelligence test.
• STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALE (SBIS)-
this test was originally designed to measure the
mental abilities of school children.

37. MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION OF
INTELLIGENCE
The formula for intelligence quotient is
Whereas :
IQ = intelligence quotient
MA = Mental age
CA = chronological or actual age
Formula IQ=MA/CA x 100

38. Stanford - Binet Classification of
Intelligence
140 above--------------------Very Superior
120-140-----------------------Superior
110-120-----------------------High Average
90 – 110-----------------------Normal or Average
80-90---------------------------Below Average
70-80---------------------------Borderline
50-70 ---------------------------Moron
25-50 ---------------------------Imbecile
25 Below----------------------Idiot

39. WECHSLER ADULT INTELLIGENCE
SCALE (WAIS)
• this test was designed to measure the general
intelligence of adult.
WECHSLER CLASSIFICATION OF INTELLIGENCE
128 and over--------------Very Superior
120-127---------------------Superior
111-119---------------------Bright normal
91-110-----------------------Average
80-90-------------------------DullNormal
66-79-------------------------Borderline
65 and below---------------Defective

40. MENTALLY RETARDED
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
mental Disorders( DSM-IV),the characteristics of a
mentally retarded are as follows
-below 70 IQ
-difficulty in performing adaptive behavior
-difficulty in performing adaptive behavior became
apparent before the age of 18
Adaptive behavior refers to the skills needed to ive
independently that are minimally acceptable level for
one’s age.

41. THREE LEVELS OF MENTALLY
RETARDED
• MORON-educable mentally retarded with a
mental age of 12 years and an IQ level of
50-70
• IMBECILE-trainable mentally retarded with a
mental age of 7 years and an IQ level of 25-50
• IDIOT-custodial mentally retarded with a
mental age of 3 year old and an IQ level of
below 25

42. THE MENTALLY GIFTED
• In 1972, Marlad describes gifted students as those
who give evidence of high achievement capability
in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic or
leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields.
• Specifically, the characteristics of mentally gifted
are as follows
1. 130 IQ and above;
2. Usually talented or gifted; and,
3. Academically superior