Major Project Report

1. 1
Abstract
The renewable energy is vital for today’s world as in near future the non
renewable sources that we are using are going to get exhausted. Nowadays, we are
experiencing an electricity scarcity we are experiencing a Lead in shortage too. So the
battery manufacturing cost and resulting end user prices are sky high also a shortage of
batteries in the market. We are also experiencing a hike in fuel prices considerably, is
bound to go on as time pass by as soon we will be shortage of fuel too. There is an
emphasis on using fuel appreciably but nobody is taking care of it.
But we are at least taking the consideration of it and with this we are trying to put
a novel concept in the market. The solar train is a step in saving these non renewable
sources of energy. In India where weather is mostly sunny and sunlight is available whole
year, it’s a very good idea to use solar energy for the purpose of transportation.
We propose an electricity supply system suitable for public transportation. In this
system, solar cells are installed on the rooftop of the trains. We Provide solar panels on
the roof of the coach to directly charge the storage battery mounted under slung at each
coach. There are many doubts about viability and applicability of such provisions.
Nowhere in any of the railways world over, self-generating coaches are in service,
therefore, there is no possibility of getting the ready-made technology from abroad and
has to be tried and developed in India only. The developed countries are already
experimenting use of solar power for road vehicle and aircraft, which gives confidence
for its viability. Bendable solar panels which can be pasted on the coach roof without
affecting maximum moving dimension will serve the purpose.
The basic principle of solar train is to use energy that is stored in a battery during
and after charging it from a solar panel. The charged batteries are used to drive the motor
which serves here as an engine and moves the train in forward direction. This idea, in
future, may help protect our fuels from getting extinguished.
All recent electric vehicles present drive on AC power supplied motor. The setup
requires an inverter set connected to battery through which DC power is converted to AC
power. During this conversion many losses take place and hence the net output is very
less and lasts for shorter duration of time. Although this is cheaper the setup and
maintenance required is much more in AC drive than DC drive.

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1. Introduction
Energy is one of the most vital needs for human survival on earth. We are dependent on
one form of energy or the other for fulfilling our needs. One such form of energy is the
energy from fossil fuels. We use energy from these sources for generating electricity,
running automobiles etc. But the main disadvantages of these fossil fuels are that they are
not environmental friendly and they are exhaustible. To deal with these problems of fossil
fuels, we need to look at the Non-Conventional Sources of energy. With regard to this
idea we have designed a train that runs on solar energy.
Many specifications must to know about solar train from solar array , motor,
battery and so on each specification has theory and calculation to mate it function
correctly & able to move perfectly. This project a lot depends on solar panel because it
using influence if the solar train can drive or not.
Using brain storming techniques to generate ideas , several initial design may be
consider a common place to start is with the shape of the train since it will dictate the
design of many other system initial designing concept are also developed for chassis
design mechanical system design, electric system design, driving train design & solar
array design that show promise are investigated further so that design can be compare
through trade of studies the concept must be eliminated until a final design can be agreed
upon there are many factors to consider to each design, for example:
Weight
Efficiency
Speed
Knowledge about solar array also important because the array is made up of many
photovoltaic solar cell that convert sun energy into electricity .the cell types & the
dimensions of the array depends on the vehicle size and class.
More over knowledge about drive train in solar powered vehicle is very different
from that a conventional car. Throw this project the drive trains consist of electric motor
& the means by which the motor power is transmitted to the vehicle to move.
This project is to design a solar powered train with objective as follows:
a) To design use photovoltaic source of power.
b) To fabricate & assemble a working proto type model.
The challenges of this project are as follows:
a) Selection of solar panel.

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b) Selection of battery.
c) Selection of chassis, selection of motor etc.
Is a vehicle that runs on electricity really environmentally friendly? Table 1 shows
composition of electricity generation of India. In India, fossil fuel power generation
accounts for over 70% of all electric power. This means that more fossil fuels are
consumed, when electric vehicles spread.
The electricity sector in India had an installed capacity of 261.006 GW as of end
February 2015 and generated around 961.777 Billion unit for the period April 2014 -
February 2015. India became the world's third largest producer of electricity in the year
2013 with 4.8% global share in electricity generation surpassing Japan and
Russia. Renewable Power plants constituted 27.80% of total installed capacity and Non-
Renewable Power Plants constituted the remaining 72.20%. India generated around
967 TWh of electricity (excluding electricity generated from renewable and captive
power plants) during the 2013–14 fiscal. The total annual generation of electricity from
all types of sources was 1102.9 TeraWatt-hours in 2013.
If railways, especially light rails, could run on renewable energy such as solar
power and wind power, wouldn’t that be truly environmentally friendly? In this
document, we propose an exactly environmentally friendly LRT (Light Rail Transit)
system using solar energy and we are going to verify feasibility.
Composition of Power Generation in India
Coal 59%
Hydro 17%
Renewable Energy 12%
Natural Gas 9%
Nuclear 2%
Oil 1%
Table- 1

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2. Literature Survey
2.1. Solar powered vehicles
The first solar powered vehicle invented was a tiny 15-inch vehicle created by
William G. Cobb of General Motors. Called the Sun mobile, Cobb showcased the first
solar powered vehicle at the Chicago Powerama convention on August 31, 1955. The
solar powered vehicle was made up 12 selenium photovoltaic cells and a small Pulley
electric motor turning a pulley which in turn rotated the rear wheel shaft. The first solar
powered vehicle in history was obviously too small to drive.
Now let's jump to 1962 when the first solar powered vehicle that a person could
drive was demonstrated to the public. The International Rectifier Company converted a
vintage model 1912 Baker electric car (pictured above) to run on photovoltaic energy in
1958, but they didn't show it until 4 years later. Around 10,640 individual solar cells were
mounted to the rooftop of the Baker to help propel it.
In 1977, Alabama University professor Ed Passereni built the Bluebirdsolar
powered vehicle, which was a prototype full scale vehicle. The Bluebird was supposed to
move from power created by the photovoltaic cells only without the use of a battery. The
Bluebird was exhibited in the Knoxville, TN 1982 World's Fair.
Between 1977 and 1980 (the exact dates are not known for sure), at Tokyo Denki
University, Professor Masaharu Fujita first created a solar bicycle, and then a 4-
wheelsolar powered vehicle. The car was actually two solar bicycles put together.
In 1979 Englishman Alain Freeman invented a solar powered vehicle (pictured
right). His road registered the same vehicle in 1980. The Freeman solar powered vehicle
was a 3-wheeler with a solar panel on the roof.
At the engineering department at Tel Aviv University in Israel, Arye Braunstein
and his colleagues created a solar powered vehicle in 1980 (pictured below). The solar
powered vehicle had a solar panel on the hood and on the roof of the City car comprised
of 432 cells creating 400 watts of peak power. The solar powered vehicle used 8 batteries
of 6 volts each to store the photovoltaic energy.
The 1,320 pound solar Citicar is said by the engineering department to have been
able to reach up to 40 mph with a maximum range of 50 miles.
In 1981 Hans Tholstrup and Larry Perkins built a solar powered racecar. In 1982,
the pair became the first to cross a continent in a solar powered vehicle, from Perth to
Sydney, Australia. Tholstrup is the creator of the World Solar Challenge in Australia.
In 1984, Greg Johanson and Joel Davidson invented the Sunrunner solar race car.
The Sunrunner set the official Guinness world record in Bellflower, California of 24.7

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mph. In the Mojave Desert of California and final top speed of 41 mph was officially
recorded for a "Solely Solar Powered Vehicle" (did not use a battery). The 1986
Guinness book of world records published the official records.
The GM Sunraycer in 1987 completed a 1,866 mile trip with an average speed of
42 mph. Since this time there have been many solar powered vehicles invented at
universities for competitions such as the Shell Eco Marathon. There is also a
commercially available solar powered vehicle called the Venturi Astrolab. Time will only
tell how far the solar powered vehicle makes it with today’s & tomorrow’s technology.
Solar powered vehicles combine technology typically used in the aerospace, bicycle,
alternative energy and automotive industries. The design of a solar vehicle is severely
limited by the amount of energy input into the car. Most solar powered vehicles have
been built for the purpose of solar train races. Exceptions include solar-powered cars and
utility vehicles.
Solar trains are often fitted with gauges as seen in conventional cars. In order to
keep the car running smoothly, the driver must keep an eye on these gauges to spot
possible problems. Cars without gauges almost always feature wireless telemetry, which
allows the driver's team to monitor the car's energy consumption, solar energy capture
and other parameters and free the driver to concentrate on driving. Solar trains depend on
PV cells to convert sunlight into electricity. In fact, 51% of sunlight actually enters the
Earth's atmosphere.
Unlike solar thermal energy which converts solar energy to heat for either
household purposes, industrial purposes or to be converted to electricity, PV cells directly
convert sunlight into electricity. When sunlight (photons) strikes PV cells, they excite
electrons and allow them to flow, creating an electrical current. PV cells are made of
semiconductor materials such as silicon and alloys of indium, gallium and nitrogen.
Silicon is the most common material used and has an efficiency rate of 15-20%. Of late,
several consulting companies, such as Phoenix Snider Power, have started offering
technical and financial services to institutes and teams developing solar powered vehicles
worldwide
During the 1990s, regulations requiring an approach to "zero emissions"
from vehicles increased interest in new battery technology. Battery systems that
offer higher energy density became the subject of joint research by federal and
auto industry scientists. Solar powered vehicles were first built by universities and
manufacturers. The sun energy collector areas proved to be too large for consumer
cars, however that is changing. Development continues on solar cell design and
car power supply requirements such as heater or air-conditioning fans.
July 2007 marks the 24th anniversary since Joel Davidson and Greg Johanson set
The First Guinness World Record for a 100% solar powered vehicle (no batteries). In
1986, the vehicle was retired and taken apart, but the solar array is still producing
electricity for an off-grid home.

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2.2. History of Photovoltaic Cell
Photovoltaic system converts sun light into electricity. The term "photo" is a
stem from the Greek "photos," which means "light." "Volt" is named for
Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), a pioneer in the study of electricity. "Photo-
voltaic," then, could literally mean "light-electricity." Most commonly known as
"solar cells," PV systems are already an important part of our lives. The simplest
systems power many of the small calculators and wrist watches we use every day.
More complicated systems provide electricity for pumping water, powering
communications equipment, and even lighting our homes and running our
appliances. In a surprising number of cases, PV power is the cheapest form of
electricity performing these tasks.[7]
Photovoltaic cells converts’ lighter energy into electricity into atomic level.
Although first discovered in 1839, the process of producing electric current in
a solid material with the aid of sunlight wasn't truly understood for more than
a hundred years. Through the second half of the 20th century, the science has
been refined and the process has been more fully explained. As a result, the cost of
these devices has put them into the mainstream of modern energy producers. This
was caused in part by advances in the technology, where PV conversion
efficiencies have improved considerably'.
French physicist Edmond Becquerel first described the photovoltaic
(PV) effect in 1839, but it remained a curiosity of science for the next
three quarters of a century. At only 19, Becquerel found that certain materials
would produce small amounts of electric current when exposed to light. The
effect was first studied in solids, such as selenium, by Heinrich Hertz in the
1870s. Soon afterward, selenium PV cells were converting light to electricity at
1% to 2% efficiency. As a result, selenium was quickly adopted in the
emerging field of photography for use in light- measuring devices. Major
steps toward commercializing PV were taken in the 1940s and early 1950s,
when the Czochralski process was developed for producing highly pure
crystalline silicon. In 1954, scientists a t Bell Laboratories depended on the
Czochralski process to develop the first crystalline silicon photovoltaic cell,
which had an efficiency of 4%. The term "photovoltaic" comes from the Greek φῶς
(phōs) meaning "light", and "voltaic", meaning electric, from the name of the Italian
physicist Volta, after whom a unit of electro-motive force, the volt, is named. The term
"photo-voltaic" has been in use in English since 1849.
The photovoltaic effect was first recognized in 1839 by French physicist A. E.
Becquerel. However, it was not until 1883 that the first photovoltaic cell was built, by
Charles Fritts, who coated the semiconductor selenium with an extremely thin layer of
gold to form the junctions. The device was only around 1% efficient. In 1888 Russian

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physicist Aleksandr Stoletov built the first photoelectric cell (based on the outer
photoelectric effect discovered by Heinrich Hertz earlier in 1887). Albert Einstein
explained the photoelectric effect in 1905 for which he received the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1921. Russell Ohl patented the modern junction semiconductor solar cell in
1946, which was discovered while working on the series of advances that would lead to
the transistor.
The modern photovoltaic cell was developed in 1954 at Bell Laboratories. The
highly efficient solar cell was first developed by Daryl Chapin, Calvin Souther Fuller and
Gerald Pearson in 1954 using a diffused silicon p-n junction. At first, cells were
developed for toys and other minor uses, as the cost of the electricity they produced was
very high - in relative terms, a cell that produced 1 watt of electrical power in bright
sunlight cost about $250, comparing to $2 to $3 for a coal plant.
Solar cells were rescued from obscurity by the suggestion to add them to the
Vanguard I satellite. In the original plans, the satellite would be powered only by battery,
and last a short time while this ran down. By adding cells to the outside of the fuselage,
the mission time could be extended with no major changes to the spacecraft or its power
systems. There was some skepticism at first, but in practice the cells proved to be a huge
success, and solar cells were quickly designed into many new satellites, notably Bell's
own Telstar.
Improvements were slow over the next two decades, and the only widespread use
was in space applications where their power-to-weight ratio was higher than any
competing technology. However, this success was also the reason for slow progress;
space users were willing to pay anything for the best possible cells, there was no reason
to invest in lower-cost solutions if this would reduce efficiency. Instead, the price of cells
was determined largely by the semiconductor industry; their move to integrated circuits
in the 1960s led to the availability of larger boules at lower relative prices. As their price
fell, the price of the resulting cells did as well. However these effects were limited, and
by 1971 cell costs were estimated to be $100 a watt.

8. 8
Block Diagram
Solar Panel DC Motor Wheel Railway Track
Battery Electronic Circuit Sensor
Figure 1

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3. Constructional Detail
3.1. Specification of Block Diagram Of Solar Vehicle
Block diagram of solar vehicle is shown in fig 1 & components of the vehicle are
as follows.
1 Solar Panel
2 DC Motor
3 Battery
4 Wheel
5 Railway Track
6 Chassis
7 Electronic Circuit
8 Battery Indicator
9 Anti-collision Sensor

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3.1.1. Solar Panel
I. What Is Solar Panel?
Essentials solar panels are groups of silicon cells used to convert light energy into
electricity. Solar panels are thin silicon cells that are grouped together into a
simple frame with some wire works. The panels harness daylight and process it
for human use by absorbing electrons from the sun’s rays. These electrons help to
extract energy from the silicon, which is unstable due to a chemical combination
of boron and phosphorus combined in each cell. When the silicon heats up from
the sun, it reacts with the other chemical additives and becomes unstable. Then
the electrons in the sun are absorbed by the silicon and the unstable silicon
elements are forced through the wires established in the panel this becomes D.C.
energy.
II. Function of Solar Cells
Not only sun is the source of heat & light it is also source of electricity too! Solar
cells also called photovoltaic cells are used to convert sunlight to electricity. Solar
cells are used to provide electricity all kinds of equipment, from calculators and
watches to roadside emergency phones and recreational vehicles. Solar cell is most
commonly made from silica, the same material used to make computer chips.
Silicon is one of the Earth’s most common elements, and is a major component of
sand and many kinds of rocks. A solar cell is built like a sandwich, with two layers
of silicon separated by a thin layer of insulating material. All three layers work
together to convert sunlight into electricity.
When sunlight falls on to the solar cell, it produces a small electric charge.
Like a battery, the charge is positive on one side of the cell, and negative on the
other. A wire connects the two sides of the cell, allowing electricity to flow. This
flow, or current, of electricity can be used to power a small light bulb, turn an
electric motor, or recharge a battery.
Solar cells are often used in locations where there isn’t any electricity and where
electricity is needed in small amounts. In such cases, solar cells are usually connected to
batteries, allowing electricity to be stored for use during times when the sun isn’t shining.
A single solar cell is able to produce only a small amount of electricity. But solar
cells can be connected together on a multi-cell panel to produce larger amounts of
electricity. As with batteries, the more cells that are connected to one another, the greater
the current of electricity that can be produced. Solar panels can produce enough
electricity to power satellites, recreational vehicles, and equipment for other applications
where electricity is used in large amounts.

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III. Material of Photovoltaic Cell
Visible light can be directly converted to electricity by a space-age technology
called a photovoltaic cell, also called a solar cell. Most photovoltaic cells are made from
a crystalline substance called silicon, one of the Earth’s most common materials. Solar
cells are typically made by slicing a large crystal of silicon into thin wafers and putting
two separate wafers with different electrical properties together, along with wires to
enable electrons to travel between layers. When sunlight strikes the solar cell, electrons
naturally travel from one layer to the other through the wire because of the different
properties of the two silicon wafers.
A single cell can produce only very tiny amounts of electricity-barely enough to
light up a small light bulb or power a calculator. Nonetheless, single photovoltaic cells
are used in many small electronic appliances such as watches and calculators.
IV. Photovoltaic Cell
To capture and convert more energy from the sun, photovoltaic cells are linked to
form photovoltaic arrays. An array is simply a large number of single cells connected by
wires. Linked together in an array, solar cells can produce enough electricity to do some
serious work. Many buildings generate most of their electrical needs from solar
photovoltaic arrays.
Photovoltaic arrays are becoming a familiar sight along roadsides, on
farms, and in the city, whenever portable electricity is needed. They are commonly
used to provide power for portable construction signs, emergency telephones, and
remote industrial facilities. They are also becoming popular as a way of supplying
electricity for remote power applications such as homes and cabins that are
located away from power lines, for sailboats, recreational vehicles,
telecommunications facilities, oil and gas operations, and sometimes entire
villages-in tropical countries, for example.
V. Storing Electricity
Solar panels make electricity in all kinds of conditions, from cloudy skies to full
sunlight, in all seasons of the year. But they don’t work at all during the nighttime! To
make electricity available after sundown, the energy must be stored during the day for
later use. The usual storage device is a rechargeable battery.
The batteries used with solar arrays must be able to discharge and recharge again
many times. They contain special parts and chemicals not found in disposable batteries.
They are also usually larger and more expensive than their disposable cousins. Besides
solar panels and rechargeable batteries, modem photovoltaic systems are usually
equipped with some kind of electronic charge controller. The main job of the charge
controller is to feed electricity from the solar panel to the battery.
VI. How Photovoltaic Cell Work
Photovoltaic cells are marvels of sub-atomic physics. They are constructed by
layering special materials called semiconductors into thin, flat sandwiches, called solar

12. 12
cells. These are linked by electrical wires and arranged on a panel of a stiff, non-
conducting material such as glass. The panel itself is called a module.
A ray of light consists of a stream of photons-tiny packets of light energy-moving
along at around 300,000 kilometers per second. When these energy packets strike the top
layer of a solar panel, they bump electrically charged particles called electrons away from
their “parent” atoms. These electrons are collected by another layer in the sandwich and
passed along to wires that connect to batteries and other appliances. The amount of
electricity the panel can produce depends on the intensity of the light.
VII. Energy Flow For A Solar train
The energy from the sun strikes the earth throughout the entire day. However, the
amount of energy changes due to the time of day, weather conditions, and
geographic location. The amount of available solar energy is known as the solar
isolation and is most commonly measured in watts per meter squared or W / m 2.
In India on a bright sunny day in the early afternoon the solar isolation will be
roughly around 1000 W / m 2, but in the mornings, evenings, or when the skies
are overcast, the solar isolation will fall towards 0 W / m 2. It must understand
how the available isolation changes in order to capture as much of the available
energy as possible.
There is a general idea how energy flows in a solar train. The sunlight hits the
cells of the solar array, which produces an electrical current. The energy (current) can
travel to the batteries for storage; go directly to the motor controller, or a combination of
both. The energy sent to the controller is used to power the motor that turns the wheel and
makes the car moves.
Generally if the car is in motion, the converted sun light is delivered directly to
the motor controller, but there are times when there is more energy coming from the may
than the motor controller needs. When this happens, the extra energy gets stored in the
batteries for later use.
When the solar may can’t produce enough energy to drive the motor at the desired
speed, the array’s energy is supplemented with stored energy from the batteries.
Of course, when the car is not in motion, all the energy from the solar may is
stored in the batteries. There is also a way to get back some of the energy used to propel
the car. When the car is being slowed down, instead of using the normal mechanical
brakes, the motor is turned into a generator and energy flows backwards through the
motor controller and into the batteries for storage. This is known as regenerative braking.
The amount of energy returned to the batteries is small, but every bit helps.
VIII. Solar Array For A Solar train
The solar array is the vehicle’s only source of power during the cross-country
race. The array is made up of many (often several hundred) photovoltaic solar
cells that convert the sun’s energy into electricity. Teams use a variety of solar

13. 13
cell technologies to build their arrays. The cell types and dimensions of the array
are depending on the vehicle size and class.
The cells are wired together to form strings. Several strings are often wired
together to form a section or panel that has a voltage close to the nominal battery voltage.
There are several methods used to string the cells together, but the primary goal is to get
as many solar cells possible in the space available. The solar cells are very fragile and can
be damaged easily. It protects the cells from both the weather and breakage by
encapsulating them. There are several methods used to encapsulate cells and the goal is to
protect the cells while adding the least amount of weight.
The power produced by the solar may varies depending on the weather, the sun’s
position in the sky, and the solar array itself. On a bright, sunny day at noon, a good solar
train solar array will produce well over 1000 watts (1.3 hp) of power. The power from the
may is used either to power the electric motor or stored in the battery pack for later use.
In this model the photovoltaic cells arranged in this manner to deliver 12V dc, where
each cell has voltage of 1.5v each, the parallel connection of the cells is done to meet the
current capacity.
If 12 v then 9 cells are connected in series, here the power requirement is
considered to be a 500mA,then the total power output from the panel will be
12*500mA=6w approx, then the panel to be chosen more than this ratings. So that it can
sufficiently deliver the required output. The panel should be of 9 W powers output
capacity.
Solar cells are almost exclusively based on silicon as the voltage source. Pure
(crystalline) silicon is a semiconductor, a crystal, with a regular structure of atoms which
are joined by chemical links. By applying energy, for example, absorption of light, it is
possible for electrons to be released from their atoms. With silicon, the minimum amount
of energy (force) needed for release equals 1.2eV (approx. 5 X 10-26 kWh).
In as far as it interacts with matter; light consists of a beam of particles (photons) which
matter on a surface. The energy of a single photon depends on the wavelength (i.e. co
lour) of the light: violet photons in shortwave light contain more energy than red photons
in light with a relatively large wavelength. The total power of the radiation is calculated
from the number photons that hit the irradiated surface per unit of time, multiplied by the
energy of individual photons. When light is absorbed, one photon can only transfer its
energy to one electron, irrespective of the amount of energy it contains. The only
condition for this to happen is that the minimum electron release energy is available.
Solar cells do not consist of pure silicon. The basic material is arranged in layers
& purposely polluted (doped) with foreign atoms which have either one electron less (p
doping with boron or aluminum) or one electron more (n-doping with phosphor or
arsenic) than required for taking up into silicon crystal structure.
Inside the barrier layer exits an electrical field which drives free charge carries
caused by irradiation to the electrodes of the solar cell.

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Unfortunately, the resulting electrical current is rather small than might be
expected based on the amount of energy that hits the cell surface. The reason is twofold:
firstly only about 50% (max.) of the energy contained in the solar spectrum that reaches
the earth can be used for photovoltaic conversion. Secondly, the efficiency is limited by
such factors as reflections, recombination & other losses. In practice, the overall
efficiency of a photovoltaic cell will hardly ever exceed 16%. Higher values of up to 40%
are only possible under laboratory conditions.
In general, a distinction is made between three cell types based on silicon:
Monocrystalline cells have the highest efficiency (12-15%). These so-called wafers are
cut from a cylinder-shaped monocrystal & are recognized by their rounded or broken
corners, & their smooth blue-grey surface.
Polycrystalline solar cells are made from silicon cast in blocks. By controlled cooling of
these blocks, relatively large crystallites are created which are at right angles to the cell
surface. When the block is cut into discs, the surface is opalescent. Polycrystalline cells
may be considered as a kind of parallel configuration of monocrystals. Their efficiency is
slightly below that of monocrystalline cells at 10 of 13%.
Amorphous silicon is the basic material used for solar cell type with the widest use.
With these cells, monosilane (SiH4) is grown in very thin layers on a glass surface. The
production process is simple & cost efficient. The silicon layer is totally unstructured, in
other words, no crystal is involved. Consequently, the efficiency is relatively low at only
7% (max.). None the less, amorphous cells are well as tablished in low power
applications (watches, pocket calculators), mainly because of their low price. A special
problem is formed by the long-term stability – in contrast with crystalline cells, the
performance of amorphous cells drops after some time, albeit not as quickly as the types
manufactured a few years ago.
The main shortcoming of solar cells is the fact that the basic material, silicon, has to be of
purity which is almost beyond imagination. This might strike you as odd considering that
the resources for silicon are, in principal, unlimited. Furthermore, the material is non-
toxic, environmentally clean, & easy to process. Returning to the subject of purity, the
‘pollution’ by foreign atoms are may not exceed 1 ppb (parts per billion). The production
of silicon with this degree of purity is expensive & complex. This is reflected not only by
the cost, but also by small production volumes of crystalline, pure, silicon.
IX. Cell Type
There are many types of photovoltaic cell, with varying efficiencies. Cost
generally increases with efficiency, and cost per watt rises rapidly as efficiency
increases.
For applications where there is plenty of space available for cells, efficiency is not
usually a great concern and a large array of low efficiency cells is often the best solution.

15. 15
But for solar cars (and for satellites) there is a limited area available, and so high
efficiency cells are preferred.
The types of the cell that have been used in the solar cars include:
1. Monocrystalline Silicon
2. Single Junction Gallium Arsenide (Gaas)
3. Multi-Junction Gallium Arsenide
Other types of cells, such as thin-film silicon, polycrystalline silicon and
amorphous silicon, are generally not efficient enough to deliver sufficient power from the
limited space available on the surface of a solar car.
Monocrystalline cells have the highest efficiency (12-15%). Sun Power makes
cells with efficiencies greater than 21%. Multi-junction gallium arsenide cells are more
efficient than silicon cells and its efficiencies up to 28%, but also much more expensive.
Higher values of up to 40% are only possible under laboratory conditions.

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Figure.2- Bendable Solar Panel
Figure.3- Solar Panel

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3.1.2 DC Motor
A DC motor is any of a class of electrical machines that converts direct current
electrical power into mechanical power. The most common types rely on the forces
produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC motors have some internal
mechanism, either electromechanical or electronic; to periodically change the direction of
current flow in part of the motor. Most types produce rotary motion; a linear motor
directly produces force and motion in a straight line.
DC motors were the first type widely used, since they could be powered from existing
direct-current lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor’s speed can be controlled
over a wide range, using either a variable supply voltage or by changing the strength of
current in its field windings. Small DC motors are used in tools, toys, and appliances.
The universal motor can operate on direct current but is a lightweight motor used for
portable power tools and appliances. Larger DC motors are used in propulsion of electric
vehicles, elevator and hoists, or in drives for steel rolling mills. The advent of power
electronics has made replacement of DC motors with AC motors possible in many
applications.
Electromagnetic Motor
A coil of wire with a current running through the 6 generates an electromagnetic field
aligned with the center of the coil. The direction and magnitude of the magnetic field
produced by the coil can be changed with the direction and magnitude of the current
flowing through it.
A simple DC motor has a stationary set of magnets in the stator and an armature with one
more windings of insulated wire wrapped around a soft iron core that concentrates the
magnetic field. The windings usually have multiple turns around the core, and in large
motors there can be several parallel current paths. The ends of the wire winding are
connected to a commutator. The commutator allows each armature coil to be energized in
turn and connects the rotating coils with the external power supply through brushes.
(Brushless DC motors have electronics that switch the DC current to each coil on and off
and have no brushes.)
The total amount of current sent to the coil, the coil’s size and what it’s wrapped around
dictate the strength of the electromagnetic field created.
The sequence of turning a particular coil on or off dictates what direction the effective
electromagnetic fields are pointed. By turning on and off coils in sequence a rotating
magnetic field can be created. These rotating magnetic fields interact with the magnetic
fields of the magnets (permanent or electromagnets) in the stationary part of the motor
(stator) to create a force on the armature which causes it to rotate. In some DC motor
designs the stator fields use electromagnets to create their magnetic fields which allow
greater control over the motor.

18. 18
i. Brush
The brushed DC electric motor generates torque directly from DC power supplied to the
motor by using internal commutation, stationary magnets (permanent or electromagnets),
and rotating electrical magnets.
Advantages of a brushed DC motor include low initial cost, high reliability, and simple
control of motor speed. Disadvantages are high maintenance and low life-span for high
intensity uses. Maintenance involves regularly replacing the carbon brushes and springs
which carry the electric current, as well as cleaning or replacing the commutator. These
components are necessary for transferring electrical power from outside the motor to the
spinning wire windings of the rotor inside the motor. Brushes consist of conductors.
ii. Brushless
Typical brushless DC motors use a rotating permanent magnet in the rotor, and stationary
electrical current/coil magnets on the motor housing for the stator. A motor controller
converts DC to AC. This design is mechanically simpler than that of brushed motors
because it eliminates the complication of transferring power from outside the motor to the
spinning rotor. The motor controller can sense the rotor’s position via Hall effect sensors
or similar and precisely control the timing, phase, etc., of the current in the rotor coils to
optimize torque, conserve power, regulate speed, and even apply some braking.
Advantages of brushless motors include long life span, little or no maintenance, and high
efficiency. Disadvantages include high initial cost, and more complicated motor speed
controllers. Some such brushless motors are sometimes referred to as “synchronous
motors” although they have no external power supply to be synchronized with, as would
be the case with normal AC synchronous motors.
iii. Uncommutated
Other types of DC motors require no commutation.
 Homopolar motor – A homopolar motor has a magnetic field along the axis of
rotation and an electric current that at some point is not parallel to the magnetic field.
The name homopolar refers to the absence of polarity change. Homopolar motors
necessarily have a single-turn coil, which limits them to very low voltages. This has
restricted the practical application of this type of motor.
 Ball bearing motor – A ball bearing motor is an unusual electric motor that consists
of two ball bearing-type bearings, with the inner races mounted on a common
conductive shaft, and the outer races connected to a high current, low voltage power
supply. An alternative construction fits the outer races inside a metal tube, while the
inner races are mounted on a shaft with a non-conductive section (e.g. two sleeves on
an insulating rod). This method has the advantage that the tube will act as a flywheel.
The direction of rotation is determined by the initial spin which is usually required to
get it going.

19. 19
Figure.4- DC Motor
Figure.5- Battery

20. 20
3.1.3 Battery
A battery electric multiple unit, battery electric railcar or accumulator railcar is an
electrically driven multiple unit or railcar whose energy is derived from rechargeable
batteries that drive its traction motors.
The main advantage of these vehicles is their clean, quiet operation. They do not use
fossil fuels like coal or diesel fuel, emit no exhaust gases and do not require the
railway to have expensive infrastructure like electric ground rails or overhead catenary.
On the down side is the weight of the batteries, which raises the vehicle weight and their
range before recharging of between 300 and 600 kilometers. Battery electric units have a
higher purchase price and running cost than petrol or diesel railcars and need a network
of charging stations along the routes they work.
Battery technology has greatly improved over the past 20 years broadening the scope
of use of battery trains, moving away from limited niche applications. Despite higher
purchase and running costs, on certain lines battery trains make economic sense as the
very high cost of full line electrification is eliminated. From March 2014 a passenger
battery train has been in operation in Japan. Britain is experimenting with passenger
battery trains using lithium batteries.
A solar train uses the battery pack to store energy, which will be at a later time. The
battery pack is made up of several individual modules wired together to generate the
required system voltage. The types of batteries used include:
 Lead-Acid
 Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH)
 Nickel-Cadmium (NiCad)
 Lithium Ion
The NiCad, NiMH, and Lithium batteries offer improved power to weight ratio over the
more common Lead-Acid batteries, but are more costly to maintain.
The battery pack is made up of several individual modules wired together to generate the
required system voltage. Typically, teams use system voltages between 84 and 108 volts,
depending on their electrical system. For example, Tesseract uses 512 li-ion batteries,
broken down into twelve modules, which are each equivalent to a car battery, but only
weigh 5 lbs each. Through an innovative pack design, the batteries are ventilated with
even airflow to minimize temperature differences between the modules.
3.1.4 Train Wheel
A train wheel or rail wheel is a type of wheel specially designed for use on rail
tracks. A rolling component is typically pressed onto an axle and mounted directly on

21. 21
a rail car or locomotive or indirectly on a bogie, also called a truck. Wheels
are cast or forged (wrought) and are heat-treated to have a specific hardness. New
wheels are trued, using a lathe, to a specific profile before being pressed onto an
axle. All wheel profiles need to be periodically monitored to insure proper wheel-rail
interface. Improperly trued wheels increase rolling resistance, reduce energy
efficiency and may create unsafe operation. A railroad wheel typically consists of two
main parts: the wheel itself, and the tire (or tyre) around the outside. A rail tire is
usually made from steel, and is typically heated and pressed onto the wheel, where
it remains firmly as it shrinks and cools. Monobloc wheels do not have encircling
tires, while resilient rail wheels have a resilient material, such as rubber, between the
wheel and tire.
 Wheel Geometry & Flange
Most train wheels have a conical geometry, which is the primary means of keeping
the train’s motion aligned with the track. Train wheels have a flange on one side to keep
the wheels, and hence the train, running on the rails, when the limits of the geometry
based alignment are reached, e.g. due to some emergency or defect. Some wheels have a
cylindrical geometry, where flanges are essential to keep the train on the rail track.
 Wheel Related terms
 Driving wheel: A wheel in contact with the rail that also propels a locomotive.
 Bogie
 Flat: A wheel defect where the tread of a wheel has a flat spot and is no longer
round; flats can be heard as regular clicking or banging noises when the wheel
passes by. This is caused either by a locked bearing, or a brake that was not fully
released before the car was moved, dragging the wheel without turning.
 Pony truck: A two-wheel truck (US) or bogie (UK) at the front of a locomotive
 Sand: granular material poured on the rail in front of the drive wheels to improve
traction. (Sandite is a more specialized form for a similar purpose.)
 Slippery rail: The condition of fallen leaves or other debris lying on and clinging
to a railroad track that could cause train wheel slippage, resulting in premature
wheel wear and train delays.
 Torpedo (US): A small explosive device strapped to the top of the rail to alert an
approaching train of danger ahead. A torpedo creates a loud noise upon contact
with a locomotive wheel, signaling the engineer to reduce speed to 20 mph or
less; the train cannot resume its original speed until it has traveled at least a mile
beyond where it encountered the device. Traditionally used in pairs to ensure that
the sound registered with train crews, torpedoes today are essentially obsolete as
modern locomotive cabs’ soundproof construction renders the devices useless.
 Trailing wheel

22. 22
 Wheel Climb: The process of a wheel climbing up and often off the inside or
gauge side of the rail. It is a major source of derailments. Wheel climb is more
likely to occur in curves with wheels whose flanges are worn or have improper
angles. See Rail adhesion.
 Wheel Flange: The inner section of a wheel that rides between the two rails. The
angle between the wheel tread and flange is often specific to the rail to prevent
wheel climb and possible derailments. See Rail adhesion. The wheel flange is part
of the wheel tire.
 Wheel Tapper: An historical railway occupation; people employed to tap train
wheels with hammers and listen to the sound made to determine the integrity of
the wheel; cracked wheels, like cracked bells, do not sound the same as their
intact counterparts. The job was associated with the steam age, but they still
operate in some eastern European countries. Modern planned maintenance
procedures have mostly obviated the need for the wheel-tapper.
 Wheel Tread- The slightly conical section (often with a 1 in 20 slope) of a
railroad wheel that is the primary contact point with the rail.
 Wheelset: the wheel-axle assembly of a rail vehicle. The frame assembly beneath
each end of a car, railcar or locomotive that holds the wheelsets is called
the bogie (ortruck).

23. 23
Figure.6- Wheel
Figure.7- Chassis

24. 24
3.1.5 Railway Track
The track on a railway or railroad, also known as the permanent way, is the
structure consisting of the rails, fasteners, railroad ties (sleepers, British English)
and ballast (or slab track), plus the underlying sub grade. It enables trains to move by
providing a dependable surface for their wheels to roll. For clarity it is often referred to
as railway track (British English and UIC terminology) or railroad track (predominantly
in the United States). Tracks where electric trains or electric trams run are equipped with
an electrification such as an overhead electrical power line or an additional electrified
rail.
1. Structure
1.1 Traditional track structure
Notwithstanding modern technical developments, the overwhelmingly dominant
track form worldwide consists of flat-bottom steel rails supported on timber or pre-
stressed concrete sleepers (railroad ties in the US), which are themselves laid on crushed
stone ballast.
Most railroads with heavy traffic use continuously welded rails supported by sleepers
(ties) attached via base plates which spread the load. A plastic or rubber pad is usually
placed between the rail and the tie plate where concrete sleepers (ties) are used. The rail
is usually held down to the sleeper (tie) with resilient fastenings, although cut spikes are
widely used in North American practice. For much of the 20th century, rail track used
softwood timber ties and jointed rails, and a considerable extent of this track type remains
on secondary and tertiary routes. The rails were typically of flat bottom section fastened
to the ties with dog spikes through a flat tie plate in North America and Australia, and
typically of bullhead section carried in cast iron chairs in British and Irish practice.
Jointed rails were used, at first because the technology did not offer any alternative.
However the intrinsic weakness in resisting vertical loading results in the ballast support
becoming depressed and a heavy maintenance workload is imposed to prevent
unacceptable geometrical defects at the joints. The joints also required to be lubricated,
and wear at the fishplate (joint bar) mating surfaces needed to be rectified by shimming.
For this reason jointed track is not financially appropriate for heavily operated railroads.

25. 25
Timber sleepers (ties) are of many available timbers, and are often treated with creosote,
copper-chrome-arsenic, or other wood preservative. Pre-stressed concrete sleepers (ties)
are often used where timber is scarce and where tonnage or speeds are high. Steel is used
in some applications.
The track ballast is customarily crushed stone, and the purpose of this is to support the
ties and allow some adjustment of their position, while allowing free drainage.
1. Ballastless track
A disadvantage of traditional track structures is the heavy demand for
maintenance, particularly surfacing (tamping) and lining to restore the desired track
geometry and smoothness of vehicle running. Weakness of the subgrade and drainage
deficiencies also leads to heavy maintenance costs. This can be overcome by using
ballastless track. In its simplest form this consists of a continuous slab of concrete (like a
highway structure) with the rails supported directly on its upper surface (using a resilient
pad).
There are a number of proprietary systems, and variations include a continuous
reinforced concrete slab, or alternatively the use of pre-cast pre-stressed concrete units
lay on a base layer. Many permutations of design have been put forward.
However ballastless track is very expensive in up-front cost and in the case of existing
railroads requires closure of the route for a somewhat long period. Its whole life cost can
be lower because of the great reduction in maintenance requirement. Ballastless track is
usually considered for new very high speed or very high loading routes, in short
extensions that require additional strength (e.g. rail station), or for 25 ocalized
replacement where there are exceptional maintenance difficulties, for example in tunnels.
1.3. Ladder track
Ladder track utilizes sleepers aligned along the same direction as the rails with rung-
like gauge restraining cross members. Both ballasted and ballastless types exist.
1.4.Continuous longitudinally supported track
Early railways (c.1840s) experimented with continuous bearing rail track, in which
the rail was supported along its length, with examples including Brunel’s Baulk road on
the Great Western Railway, as well as use on the Newcastle and North Shields
Railway,[1] on the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway to a design by John Hawkshaw, and

26. 26
elsewhere.[2] Continuous bearing designs were also promoted by other engineers. The
system was trailed on the Baltimore and Ohio railway in the 1840s, but was found to be
more expensive to maintain than rail with cross ties.
Modern applications of continuously supported track include Balfour Beatty’s
‘Embedded Slab Track’ which uses a rounded rectangular rail profile (BB14072)
embedded in a slip formed (or pre-cast) concrete base (development 2000s), the
‘Embedded Rail Structure’, used in the Netherlands since 1976, initially used a
conventional UIC 54 rail embedded in concrete, later developed (late 1990s) to use a
‘mushroom’ shaped SA42 rail profile; a version for light rail using a rail supported in
an asphalt concrete filled steel trough has also been developed (2002).
2. Chassis
A vehicle frame, also known as its chassis, is the main supporting structure of
a motor vehicle to which all other components are attached, comparable to the skeleton of
an organism.
Until the 1930s, virtually every (motor) vehicle had a structural frame, separate from the
car’s body. This construction design is known as body-on-frame. Since then, nearly all
passenger cars have received unibody construction, meaning their chassis and bodywork have
been integrated into one another. The last UK mass-produced car with a separate chassis was
the Triumph Herald, which was discontinued in 1971. However, nearly all trucks, buses
and pickups continue to use a separate frame as their chassis.
1. Functions
a. To support the vehicle’s mechanical components and body
b. To deal with static and dynamic loads, without undue deflection or distortion.
These include:
 Weight of the body, passengers, and cargo loads.
 Vertical and torsional twisting transmitted by going over uneven surfaces.
 Transverse lateral forces caused by road conditions, side wind, and steering
the vehicle.
 Torque from the engine and transmission.
 Longitudinal tensile forces from starting and acceleration, as well as
compression from braking.
 Sudden impacts from collisions.
3.1.6. Circuit Description

27. 27
Power Supply – In this project we are using +5v regulated power supply. It is
obtained by the 230v ac. This section is covered by these parts:-
3. 12 v step down transformer (500m amp):- Step down transformer is used to
convert 230v ac to 12v ac. With current rating of 500 mump.
4. Full wave rectifier: - The full wave Bridge rectifier is used to convert 12 ac to the
pulsating dc which is equal to average value.
5. Filter: - Filter is a used to convert pulsating dc to constant dc. It may me
capacitor, RC network; inductance depends upon the current following in the
circuit or impedance of circuit. But in this system we use capacitor.
6. Linear regulator: - regulator are used the system is used to convert high voltage to
+5v constant dc.
Microcontroller:-
In this project I have used Atmel 89c51 . Pin no .40 is connected to +5V and Pin
no.20 is connected to GND . Crystal of 12 MHZ is connected to pin no .18 & 19 to
provide the clock frequency to micro controller. Switch S1 is connected to pin no.9 which
is RST pin. Port P1.0 to P1.7 , Port P3.0 to P3.7 and Port P2.4, P2.5 of microcontroller is
connected to Box connector via resistance for the connection of LED. Port P2.0 to P2.3
and P2.6 to P2.7 of microcontroller is connected to Box connector through Transistor
with a base resistance.

28. 28
Figure.8- Circuit description

29. 29
3.1.7. Advance Safety Technology
Anti-collision sensor-
The anti collision device is a self acting microprocessor based data
communication device. When installed on locomotive along with a auto breaking unit
(ABU), it prevent high speed collision in mid-section, station area & at level crossing
gates. The ACD is used both radiofrequency and GPS through satellite. The train is
automatically brought to halt if the track ahead is not clear. The train starts breaking
3kms ahead of a blockhead.

30. 30
Figure.9- Anti-collision system

31. 31
Power Supply System of Indian Railway Coaches
Indian Railways have 46,038 various types of coaches (excluding EMUs and MEMU
coaches) and around 3000 of new coaches are being added annually to the system. There
are two classes of the coaches called conventional and LHB being manufactured at ICF
Perambur and RCF Kapurthala respectively. There are three power supply systems as
existing over Indian Railways to provide illumination, fan, air-conditioning and other
miscellaneous needs of electricity for travelling passengers. These are
(a) Self Generating (SG) –
2×25 kW alternators for AC coach and 1×4.5 kW for non-AC coach is mounted under
slung, driven by a pulley-belt arrangement when driving pulley is mounted on coach axle.
Output is rectified and charges 110V DC battery for continuous power supply to AC and
non-AC coaches. AC load of roof mounted packaged units is supplied by converting DC
into 2×25 kVA inverters. This system is followed over trains having a combination of AC
and non-AC coaches.
(b) End-on-Generation (EOG) –
Two power cars each equipped with 2×750 kVA DG sets, one at each end of the train,
supplies 3 phase power at 750 V AC power to each electrically interconnected air
conditioned coach. The voltage is stepped down to 3 phase 400 V and supplied to
standard voltage equipment on each coach. EOG system is followed for fully air
conditioned train like Rajdhani, Shatabdi, Duranto, Garib Rath, Premium special trains.
Import of LHB class of coaches from Germany is provided with the EOG system with a
promise to provide SG system design for indigenous manufacturing. SG technology
given was a complete failure and IR is still struggling to develop designs for the last 15
years.
(c) Head-on-Generation (HOG) –
Power is supplied from the train locomotive at the head of the train. The single phase 25
kV transformer of the electric locomotive is provided with hotel load winding which is
converted to three phases AC at 750 V using 2×500 kVA inverter and supplied to the
same system as that of EOG. In case of Diesel Locomotive, three phase alternator is
mounted on the traction alternator and feeds the hotel load. This is the most efficient
system as the cost of power is about 25% less as compared to EOG, but the system is still
under development for the last 30 years. The other class of trains namely Electrical
Multiple Unit and Main Line Electrical Multiple Units employs the same system for
coach lighting. The system is similar to what is followed in train-set composition of train
having a power unit at head as well as on tail and power the entire load of the coach for
comfort.

32. 32
Traction Energy- Scenario-
Indian Railways consumed 14.2 Billion-unit electrical energy and 2.6 Billion-
liters of diesel oil for electrical and diesel Traction respectively during 2013-14.
Responsibility for energy conservation in electrical energy lies with the electric
department whereas for diesel oil with the Mechanical Department of Indian Railways.
Traction Energy-
Energy for Electric Traction is consumed to overcome train resistance, grade and
curve resistance, provide acceleration, losses in the locomotive during conversion of
electric energy into mechanical energy and delivering at the point of contact and optimal
use of auxiliary power in the locomotive for cooling of different equipment.
There exists scope for energy conservation in many of the items and few of it is explained
here.
Auxiliary Load
Transformer, traction motor and power converters use auxiliary power for cooling
and is approximately 100kW used in all conditions of full, half traction load and coasting.
This makes the efficiency of locomotive highly sensitive on loading pattern. There is
ample scope in reducing auxiliary power energy consumption during half load and
coasting. Energy consumption towards auxiliaries can be controlled by sensing no and
half load condition by traction power or temperature of power equipments and switching
on and off auxiliaries accordingly. On tap changer locomotive, a modification can be
done wherein cooling motors to stop on zero notch after a time delay of 1 minute and
starts working as soon progressed to notch one. Considering average 20% of journey
period either stopping or zero notch running, saving of approximately 100Crs is possible
on available locomotives of Indian Railways. With advanced instrumentation
technologies, it should be possible to measure the tractive effort required and accordingly
selection of number of traction motor sufficient to work the train to save on no load
losses. Three phase locomotive provides energy saving measures of regeneration during
braking but the same is compensated due to continuous much higher auxiliary load. The
auxiliary load review is necessary to take an advantageous position of three phase
locomotive over conventional locomotive in terms of energy efficiency.
Energy Conservation during Maintenance-
The locomotive is generally kept energized during testing thus consuming
approximately 45 kW power. It takes around 4-5 hours for testing and repairs of which
HT testing does not take much time. System of external air and locomotive battery supply

33. 33
to test the locomotive will help in reducing the pantograph raised time. The Maintenance
in charge shall note the energy reading of a locomotive at the time of entering and leaving
the shed and benchmark the minimum energy required per month for the purpose of
testing.

34. 34
4. Design Procedure
A. Solar Panel
Specification of Solar Panel-
The size of solar panel [inch] =12×8
Output voltage of solar panel [V] = 22.05/ 17.48
Current produced by solar panel [A] = 0.835/ .727
Power of the solar panel [W] = V×I
=10 (pass)
Panel efficiency [%] =15
How to Determine the Efficiency of Solar Panels
Solar panels are relatively simple to maintain, but dirt and improper placement
can significantly decrease their power output. In order to ensure you achieve the
maximum value from this product, you should regularly check the efficiency of your
solar panels. There are four steps to determined the efficiency of solar panel these are
1. Measure the area of your solar panels if you do not already know it.
2. Use a solar meter to measure the maximum solar radiation for the exact
location of your solar panels in kilowatts per meter squared. Essentially, this
measures how much power the sun is bringing to your location--i.e., the
maximum power your solar panels could theoretically provide.
3. Use the volt and amp meter to measure the volts and amps produced by your
solar panels. Multiply volts and amps to calculate the power produced by your
solar panels (P = V x A) in kilowatts. Divide the power by the area of your
solar panels in meters squared.
4. Divide the power output of the solar panel (kW/m^2) by the solar input
measured by the solar meter (kW/m^2). Multiply this number by 100 to get a
percent efficiency. Do not be discouraged if it is low--most solar panels
achieve no more than a maximum of 20 percent efficiency.

35. 35
Loss details that give the PR value (depend on the site, the technology, and sizing of the
system:-
 Inverter losses
 Temperature losses
 DC cables losses
 AC cables losses
 Shadings (Specific to each site)
 Losses weak radiation
 Losses due to dust & snow
 Other Losses
Calculation of Efficiency of Solar Panel
1. Area of solar panel =12×8 inch
= 12×8×2.54×2.54
= 600 cm2
= 0.06 m2
2. In India on a bright sunny day in the early afternoon the solar isolation will be
roughly around 1000 W / m 2.
3. Power(p) output of solar panel=voltage(v) ×current(I)
= 17.48×0.727
= 12.71 w
Divide the power by the area of your solar panels = 150 w/m2
4. Efficiency of solar panel= power output of solar panel / radiation energy incident
on the solar panel
= 150/1000
= 15%
So efficiency of solar panels 15%

36. 36
B. Train Track
Material- Iron
Weight = 5kg
Inner diameter of track [inch] = 24
Outer diameter of track [inch] = 48
Length of track [inch] = 60 + 48

37. 37
Figure.10- Track
Figure.11- Chassis with wheel

38. 38
C. Chassis
Length of Chassis [inch] = 10
Width of Chassis [inch] = 5
Thickness of chassis [mm] = 1
Material – Iron
Weight = 0.5kg
D. Wheel
Diameter [inch] = 2.5
Width [inch] = 2
Material = Fibre
Weight = 50g
E. Designing of Shaft
Input Voltage of motor =12 volts
Current rating =.717 amp.
Power output of motor = V×I
=12×.717
Power output of motor =8.6 watts.
Power = 2π×N×T
60
8.6 =2 π×60×T
60
T = 1.37 N-m
T = 1370 N-mm
T = π × fs ×d3
16

39. 39
1370 = π × 45 (assuming fs=45 N/mm2 for M.S)
16
d =5.37 mm
Thus for safe design take, d =6 mm.
Hence, the diameter of wheel shaft =6mm.
F. List of Electronics Components
1) Micro controller 89c55wd 1
2) Ic socket 40pin 1
3) Ic Socket 16pin 1
4) Ic 4050 1
5) Battery 12v 1
6) Resistor 12k 4
7) Diode 1n4007 4
8) solar Panel 12-20v 1
9) Ic 7805 1
10) Capacitor 1000m/25v 1
11) capacitor 100m/16v 1
12) Connecting wires
13) IR Sensor 3 terminal 1
14) IR LED 2
15) Ic3 CD4017 1
16) Transistor BC548 2
17) IC socket 16pin 1

40. 40
18) Diode 1n4007 2
19) Resistor 1k,1/4w 1
20) Relay 12v 1
G. Battery
Lead-Acid
Nickel-Cadmium (NiCad)
Lithium Ion
Voltage - 12volt
Capacity – 1.2 Ah
H. DC Motor
Input = 12v DC
Speed = 2×200 rpm
DOR = Clockwise

41. 41
Figure.12- Train with solar panel on rooftop
Figure.13- Himalayan Queen ( India’s first solar train)
5. Advantage & Disadvantage

42. 42
Advantage
 Solar energy is renewable and freely available.
 Fuel source for Solar Panel is direct and endless so no external fuels required.
 Unlimited life of Solar Modules, fast response and high reliability.
 Can operate under high temperature and in open.
 Inherently short circuit protected and safe under any load condition.
 Pollution free.
 Minimum Maintenance
 Independent working
 Noise-free as there are no moving parts.
 No AC to DC conversion losses as DC is produced directly.
 No transmission losses as installed in the vicinity of the load.
 Suitable for remote, isolated and hilly places.
 Since it is in modular form, provision of future expansion of capacity is
available.
 It can generate powers from milli-watts to several mega watts.
 It can be installed and mounted easily with minimum cost.
 Solar energy does not cause pollution. However, solar collectors and other
associated equipment / machines are manufactured in factories that in turn cause
some pollution.
 It provides zero% carbon emission.
 It is estimated that the world’s oil reserves will last for 30 to 40 years. On the
other hand, solar energy is infinite (forever).

43. 43
Disadvantage
 Initial cost is high
 Solar energy can only be harnessed when it is daytime and sunny.
 Additional cost for storage battery.
 Climatic condition, location, latitude, longitude, altitude, tilt angle, ageing, dent,
bird dropping, etc. affect the output.
 It has no self-storage capacity.
 Manufacturing is very complicated process.
 To install solar panel large area is required.
 Solar collectors, panels and cells are relatively expensive to manufacture although
prices are falling rapidly.

44. 44
6. Future Scope
Figure.14- Elon Musk, CEO of Tesla Motors and co-founder of SpaceX, revealed a feasibility study for an all-new
electric mode of transportation called Hyperloop, which will cost less to build by investors and cost less to use by
passengers. Image: Tesla

45. 45
Tesla CEO unveils hyperloop: the solar-powered high-speed train of the future
After much anticipation, Tesla's Elon Musk reveals plans for the hyperloop - a fast,
sustainable and cost-efficient train system without rails yet topped with solar panels and
propelled by both electric motor and air cushion dynamics
An alternative to cars, boats, planes and trains, or the four regular means of travel, the
Hyperloop is a highly anticipated design that comes a year after the electric car company
leader announced his idea for an advanced type of transport. Musk proposed a solution
combining the advantages of air and train travel that could be better than the approved
high-speed rail network in California.
The California High-Speed Rail project, to be completed in 2029, is the first such rail
system in the United States and it is intended to primarily connect travellers between San
Francisco and Los Angeles in less than three hours.
However, in the Hyperloop document, Musk wrote how he was “quite disappointed” with
the planned mass transit. He said, “How could it be that the home of Silicon Valley and
[the Jet Propulsion Laboratory] – doing incredible things like indexing all the world’s
knowledge and putting rovers on Mars – would build a bullet train that is both one of the
most expensive per mile and one of the slowest in the world?”
The Hyperloop is his answer to this dilemma. Designed by engineers from Tesla and
SpaceX, the space transport firm he co-founded, the cutting-edge transportation is an
aboveground steel tube system with aluminium capsules or pods that zoom around
carrying passengers at a speed of 760 miles per hour, or over 1,220 kilometres per hour.
This is faster than a bullet train or the California High-Speed Rail project that has an
estimated rate of 200 miles per hour.
Musk also compared other factors between the Hyperloop and California project, as well
as with other transport options, in the technical section of his design paper. He noted that
while road travel may be inexpensive, it is slow and not so eco-friendly. Air travel, on the
other hand, is expensive but fast, although not environmentally sound. Rail is likewise
expensive, but slow. However, it is the greener option among the three.
Hyperloop, he underscored, is not a give or take of benefits. The design addresses all
requirements of speed, cost and sustainability.
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46. 46
A large part of this is through the self-powering system incorporated in the design, using
solar panels atop the tube, enabling the Hyperloop to generate more energy than it needs
to operate. The energy is simply stored in battery packs that allow the pods to continue
running at night or during days with cloudy or rainy weather.
More importantly, through the energy collected, the Hyperloop is able to move without
rails. There will be an electric compressor system on the nose of the pod that will take in
air, and channel it to the holes along the skis at the bottom of the pod. This creates a line
of air cushion ‘lifting’ these capsules carrying the passengers. To move forward, magnets
are also placed on the skis and an electromagnetic pulse is emitted by an electric motor
similar to that of the Tesla Motor S sedan, albeit flat, found below it.
More electric motors will be positioned at each train stop to absorb the pods’ kinetic
energy, in effect, slowing it down.
Aside from this clean technology and the renewable energy source, Musk also considered
the resiliency and the impact of the Hyperloop system on the natural environment. The
design of the tube system makes use of a system of pylons. With this, he said, “You can
dramatically mitigate earthquake risk.” In addition, he explained, “A ground based high
speed rail system is susceptible to earthquakes and needs frequent expansion joints to
deal with thermal expansion or contraction and subtle, large-scale land movement.”

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7. Conclusion
The solar trains are used at very low scale, at present. Though they have been
around for about few years only, the technology is still in the developmental stages.
Hence they cannot be used as a practical means of traction. So here is the conclusion that
the challenge lies in making it a viable means of transport. Further research is needed in
this regard to improve solar panels, increase efficiency, and reduce weight, to improve
reliability and to reduce the cost. Research is being carried out on many semi-conductors
and their alloys to develop more efficient solar cells. Thus this technology will definitely
live up to its potential sometime in the future.

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8. References
1. Renewable energy sources by GN Tiwari
2. http://www.wikipedia.org
3. https://www.railelectrica.com
4. http://www.solarpowerrocks.com
5. http://www.formulasun.org
6. http://photovoltaicsoftware.com/PVsolarenergycalculation
7. http://www.technologystudent.com/energy1/solar7.htm
8. http://www.spacex.com