Chapter 6 – Field Notes and Reporting Field notes are the shorthand written record made by police officers from the time they arrive at the scene until the assignment is completed. The following factors they arrive at the scene until the assignment is completed. The following factors form the importance of field notes. Field Notes are More Reliable Than an Officer’s Memory It only takes a short period of time for some important details to slide away from your memory and the only way to combat this potential loss of information is to rely on field notes which you previously prepared. Field Notes are the Primary Information Source for the Incident/Offense Report Because the first-responding officer is usually the person who writes any incident report which is required by the situation, field notes are important because they represent the information which forms the content of the incident report. Detailed Field Notes May Reduce the Need to Re-contact the Parties Involved Once in a while, victims and witnesses get annoyed and even angry when they are re-contacted by an officer who obviously did not take good field notes when he/she talked to them earlier and therefore cannot complete the incident report without additional information. Field Notes Can be Used to Defend the Integrity of the Incident/Offense Report. During courtroom testimony you may refer to field notes to refresh you recollection of the events. In terms of the incident report, the basic questions which the first-responding officer to a crime scene needs to find answers for are the blank spaces on the officer to a crime scene needs to find answers for are the blank spaces on the face of an incident report. Typically this includes information about who the victims and witnesses are and how to contact them, the specifics associated with the crime, and descriptions of the suspect. There are also numerous other questions which must be asked called interrogatory questions. These include: what, when where, who, how, and why. Although no single set of questions can meet the needs for investigating all types of crime, there are six primary questions which have long be recognized in the field for being very useful. While the exact layout for incident reports typically varies from one jurisdiction to another, they all have a “face” with blanks into which the jurisdiction to another, they all have a “face” with blanks into which the officer conducting the preliminary investigation enters basic case information. These blanks require information about the type of crime committed, the complainant, victim, witnesses, and offenders, and other details. Additional investigative information is written in the blank space available on the reverse of the face or on a page which may be referred to as “continuation.” For roughly a decade, there has been a voluntary program underway which is moving police departments away from the basi.

1. Chapter 6 – Field Notes and Reporting
Field notes are the shorthand written record made by police
officers from the time
they arrive at the scene until the assignment is completed. The
following factors they arrive at the scene until the assignment is
completed. The following factors
form the importance of field notes.
Field Notes are More Reliable Than an Officer’s Memory
It only takes a short period of time for some important details to
slide away from
your memory and the only way to combat this potential loss of
information is to rely
on field notes which you previously prepared.
Field Notes are the Primary Information Source for the
Incident/Offense Report
Because the first-responding officer is usually the person who
writes any incident
report which is required by the situation, field notes are
important because they
represent the information which forms the content of the
incident report.
Detailed Field Notes May Reduce the Need to Re-contact the
Parties Involved

2. Once in a while, victims and witnesses get annoyed and even
angry when they are
re-contacted by an officer who obviously did not take good field
notes when he/she
talked to them earlier and therefore cannot complete the
incident report without
additional information.
Field Notes Can be Used to Defend the Integrity of the
Incident/Offense Report.
During courtroom testimony you may refer to field notes to
refresh you recollection
of the events.
In terms of the incident report, the basic questions which the
first-responding
officer to a crime scene needs to find answers for are the blank
spaces on the officer to a crime scene needs to find answers for
are the blank spaces on the
face of an incident report. Typically this includes information
about who the
victims and witnesses are and how to contact them, the specifics
associated
with the crime, and descriptions of the suspect.
There are also numerous other questions which must be asked
called interrogatory

3. questions. These include: what, when where, who, how, and
why. Although no
single set of questions can meet the needs for investigating all
types of crime, there
are six primary questions which have long be recognized in the
field for being very
useful.
While the exact layout for incident reports typically varies from
one
jurisdiction to another, they all have a “face” with blanks into
which the jurisdiction to another, they all have a “face” with
blanks into which the
officer conducting the preliminary investigation enters basic
case
information. These blanks require information about the type of
crime
committed, the complainant, victim, witnesses, and offenders,
and other
details. Additional investigative information is written in the
blank space
available on the reverse of the face or on a page which may be
referred to as

4. “continuation.”
For roughly a decade, there has been a voluntary program
underway which is
moving police departments away from the basic incident report
format and toward a
detailed format which collects much more data about an offense.
This program, the
National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS), is
administered by the FBI.
The NIBRS incident report collects a significant amount of
information for
later analysis by investigatorslater analysis by investigators
Whenever there are witnesses to a crime, even the most
conscientious
investigator may fail to elicit all information available. For
example, a form for investigator may fail to elicit all
information available. For example, a form for
collecting all personal description information from witnesses
may be used.

5. Another valuable aid for investigators is the handgun
identification chart such as the
one shown. This is a useful tool for witnesses who are
unfamiliar with guns.
Police reports are subject to supervisory review for corrections
and guidance before
their final disposition
Well written reports are very helpful to investigators who may
be conducting follow-
up investigations at a later date
The use of computers in cars is not a new development. By the
1980s, many police
cars were equipped with mobile data terminals (MDTs).
The continued development of wireless technologies has created
new options and
possibilities for the use of technology in police cars.
In addition to using MDTs, some agencies are using Personal
Digital Assistants
(PDAs). These small hand-held units are particularly useful in
traffic enforcement.

6. After approving an incident report, the supervisor must make
some
disposition of it. The following dispositions may be made by the
supervisor. disposition of it. The following dispositions may be
made by the supervisor.
The case may be retained for further investigation by uniformed
officers; it
may be unfounded, which means the complaint is false; the case
may be
inactivated due to the lack of leads; it may be referred to
plainclothes
investigators, or the case may be completed and closed.
Name
The full names of complainants, witnesses, and other parties
must always be obtained.The full names of complainants,
witnesses, and other parties must always be obtained.
2. Race, Ethnicity, and Sex
Race or ethnicity extraction should never be documented in
such a manner as to cast aspersion on a person.
3. Age

7. On entries requiring only a person’s age, it should be indicated
as of the last birthday.
4. Physical and Email Addresses
Physical and email addresses are particularly important because
it helps investigators to find people for additional interviews
or related procedures.
5. Telephone/Pager/Wireless Numbers
Telephone/pager/wireless numbers of an individual should
always be obtained, including area code, residence number, and
business number, including any extension number.
6. Personal Descriptions
A model form for gathering personal descriptions is shown and
discussed later in this chapter.
7. Property Description
Elements useful in describing property are make, model, serial
number, color, and type of material from which constructed.
8. Occupation
The occupation of a person may be of some importance to an
investigation.
9. Value
The value of property stolen may determine whether the offense
is a felony or misdemeanor.
10. Date

8. As a result of Y2K problem, police department abandoned the
use of a six-digit format to record dates (MM/DD/YY, e.g.,
10/22/98) and adopted an eight-digit format (MM/DD/YYYY,
i.e., 10/22/2000) for the same purpose.
11. Time
For all official business, excluding general public and related
information, most police agencies use the military system or 24-
hour clock.
If incident reports are going to serve the many uses to which
they can be put,
they must meet certain standards.they must meet certain
standards.
1. Fill in all of the blanks on the incident report unless the
information is not available or it is refused to the officer.
2. Write the report in the first person, using “I arrived at the
scene
at 1645 hours.”
3. Avoid unnecessary technical or legalistic jargon such as
“hereinafter,” “point of fact,” or “thereof.”
4. Write short sentences because they are less likely to be
confusing or to be misunderstood by the readers.

9. 5. Use shorter paragraphs for the same reason as those for
writing
shorter sentences.
6. Support any conclusions you express with details.
7. Don’t repeat facts more than once.
8. Check your spelling.
9. Edit what you write.
Periodically during the follow-up investigation supplemental
reports must be
initiated.
The purpose of writing follow-up reports is to keep the file
current as new or
corrected information is gathered. Additionally, specific acts or
accomplishments
might require individual supplemental reports, such as issuing a
BOLO. Other times
a supplemental report may be required including:
1. When the offense is unfounded.
2. When it is exceptionally cleared.

10. 3. When the case is inactivated.
Chapter 4 – Physical Evidence
Class Characteristics
When the characteristics of physical evidence are common to a
group of objects or
persons, they may be termed class. Regardless of how
thoroughly examined, such
evidence can be placed only into a broad category; an individual
identification
cannot be made because there is a possibility of more than one
source for the
evidence.
Individual Characteristics
Evidence with individual characteristics can be identified as
originating with a
particular person or source.
Soil is the natural accumulation of earth materials, such as
weathering rocks,

11. minerals, and decomposing plants, along with pollen.minerals,
and decomposing plants, along with pollen.
1. Soil examinations can determine whether soils share a
common
origin by comparing color, texture, and composition.
2. Although it is class characteristic evidence, the analysis of
soil
evidence can help focus investigations and discredit alibis.
3. The pollen in soil or on plants and grass can also be very
significant in determining whether or not a suspect was at the
scene.
Locating and Handling Soil Evidence
Soil evidence may be important when the suspect drives or
walks on unpaved
areas, so that it is picked up by tire treads or the bottom of
shoes and cuffs of
the pants. It may also be recovered in a number of other places,
such as the
floor board of the subject's car or on articles in the trunk of his
vehicle,
including shovels and blankets.

12. Preserving Shoe/Footwear Prints
Footwear prints may, or may not be readily visible. If they are
not immediately
apparent, turn the lights off and search for them using a
flashlight.
Comparing Shoe Print Evidence
SICAR is a software package which classifies, archives, and
identifies shoe prints.
Preserving Footwear Impressions
As in the case with footwear prints, the location of footwear
impressions should be
photographed as part of the general scene and then with a scale.
Preserving Shoe Impressions in Snow
Dental stone is also the preferred material for casting
impressions in snow,
replacing the more difficult and time consuming process of
using sulfur, which has to
be heated.
Photographs of footwear impressions at a crime scene
In the first photo only the impressions are shown

13. In a subsequent photo a ruler will be added to show sizes
Later casts will be made of the impressions
GLASS
Glass is important as physical evidence because of the
frequency with which it is
encountered.
A. It is essential that the crime scene technician and
investigator
understand the ways in which glass reacts to force.
B. Handling Glass Evidence
Tape should not be used to collect glass evidence and any
processing for latent
prints is ordinarily done in the laboratory.
An important question often associated with motor vehicle
accidents and hit-
and-run cases involves whether or not the lights of a suspect
vehicle were and-run cases involves whether or not the lights of
a suspect vehicle were
actually on, or energized. This is particularly important when

14. the suspect
vehicle has been crashed or wrecked. Advances in lamp filament
technology
now allow the investigator to determine this question.
Fibers are of greater value as evidence than are rootless hairs
because they
incorporate such variables as material type, number of fibers
per strand, number of
strands, the thickness of fibers and strands, the amount and
direction of twists.
Several different parts of the body—such as palms, fingers, toes
and the
soles of the feet—have friction ridges that can be used for a
“fingerprint.”soles of the feet—have friction ridges that can be
used for a “fingerprint.”
There are three broad categories of latent fingerprints:
1. Plastic prints are created when fingers touch against some
material such as a newly painted surface, the gum on envelopes
and stamps,
oil films, explosives, thick layers of dust, edible fats, putty, and
adhesive tape.

15. 2. Contaminated/visible prints result after a finger,
contaminated
with foreign matters such as soot, oils, face power, ink, and
some types of
safe insulation, touches a clean surface.
3. Latent/invisible prints are associated with the small amounts
of
body perspiration and oil that are normally found on the friction
ridges.
Conditions Affecting the Quality of Latent Fingerprints
1. The surface on which the print is deposited.
2. The nature of the material contaminating the fingerprint.
3. Any physical or occupational defects of the person making
the print.
4. How the object on which the prints appear was handled.
5. The amount of the contamination.
Methods of Developing Latent Fingerprints
There are numerous ways to develop latent prints. Five of these
with which

16. investigators should be familiar are:
1. Traditional Powders. Commercially prepared traditional
powers
come in a number of colors, including black, white, silver, red,
and gray.
2. Fluorescent Powders. Low concentrations of some naturally
occurring substances will cause a latent print to fluoresce or
glow, under
laser, alternative light, or ultraviolet illumination.
3. Chemicals. A variety of chemicals are used to develop and
enhance latent prints.
a. Amido black:
b. Crystal violet:
c. Iodine:
d. Ninhydrin:
e. DFO
f. Small-particle reagent (SPR):
4. Superglue Fuming
5. Visualization under Laser, Alternative Light, and Ultraviolet
Illumination
The term reflected ultraviolet imaging system (RUVIS) is the
generic name for a

17. class of lighting and imaging systems that have been
increasingly used in the past
several years.
Latent prints are such valuable evidence that extraordinary
efforts should be
made to recover them.made to recover them.
Superglue fuming was developed in 1978 and its use rapidly
spread. In this
photograph a portable superglue fuming chamber is used to
process the inside and
the outside of the car. It is more efficient for processing larger
objects.
Forensic dentistry is a specialty that relates dental evidence to
investigation.
The teeth and facial bones are a major means of identifying
skeletal remains
and have been used by anthropologists for many years.
Dental records include, but are not limited to, dental X-rays,
dentagrams,

18. dental charts, prosthetic molds, and dental cases.
Investigators must be particularly alert to the possibility that
bite-mark
evidence exists whenever they are working violent-crime and
child-abuse
cases.
Dental records are very useful in helping to identify unknown
persons who have
been the victim of fowl play or who have been reported simply
missing.
At crime scenes, blood may be encountered in sizes from small
drops to
large pools, in states ranging from fresh to dried, or somewhere
in between large pools, in states ranging from fresh to dried, or
somewhere in between
those points, and in as many places as we can name, including
on floors,
walls, ceilings, clothes, weapons, the suspect's and victim's
bodies, and the
exteriors and interiors of vehicles. Blood is very important in
DNA analysis.

19. If blood at the crime scene is fresh and relatively
uncontaminated, identifying
it as such is not difficult. Hemident can be used to do a
preliminary field test
for the presence of blood.
These are common sources of blood and DNA evidence that
investigators need to
be aware of in conducting crime scene searches.
Below shows the proper use of Hemident in a presumptive or
preliminary
field test for blood.field test for blood.
Firearms evidence is commonly encountered in murder,
aggravated assault,
robbery, rape, drug, kidnapping, and suicide cases.
The laboratory examination of firearms evidence may be able to
provide the
answers to the following questions.
1. Was this bullet fired from this weapon?

20. 2. What else can be learned from the bullet?
3. What determinations can be made from cartridge cases?
4. What miscellaneous determinations can be made by
examination of
firearms evidence?
When a bullet passes through the barrel of a weapon distinctive
scratches are
caused.caused.
These scratches can be compared to bullets fired through
firearms in
question.
Identification is affected by the condition of the gun and of the
bullets.
Loosely defined, a document is anything on which a mark is
made for the purpose
of transmitting a message. A disputed or questioned document is
one whose source
or authenticity is in doubt. Social security numbers are an
important source of

21. identification in America.
Criminals often try to produce social security cards in order to
assume new
identities.
Illegal aliens also often try to obtain fake social security cards.
There are three types of forgery:
a. A traced forgery is created by tracing over a genuine
signature. A
forgery of this type can be tied to the original, or master,
signatures if that
original signature can be located.
b. A simulated forgery is produced by the writer who learns to
mimic a genuine signature. It may or may not be possible to
identify the
forger, depending on the extent to which the suspect’s normal
handwriting
characteristics.
c. A freehand forgery represents the suspect’s normal
handwriting,
with no attempt to mimic the style of the genuine signature.

22. There are several different methods used in order to identify
questionable
documents. These include:
Photocopier examination
Paper examination
Age of documents
Burned or charred paper
Altered or obliterated writing
Writing instruments
mechanical-impression instruments
Typewriting
1
Interviews are conducted in criminal cases for the purpose of
gathering information
from people who have or may have knowledge needed in the
investigation.

23. The information may come from a victim or from a person who
has no other
relationship to the criminal activity other than being where he
or she was at the time.
Interrogation is designed to match acquired information to a
particular suspect to
secure a confession.
There are four commonly recognized objectives to the
interrogation process.
1. To obtain valuable facts.
2. To eliminate the innocent.
3. To identify the guilty.
4. To obtain a confession.
As in interviewing, the success of an interrogation depends on a
number of
personal characteristics and commitments of the investigator.
Planning for personal characteristics and commitments of the
investigator. Planning for
and controlling the events surrounding both interviews and
interrogations are
important, but are generally viewed as more critical to the
success of an

24. interrogation.
Establishing rapport, asking good questions, carefully listening
and proper
documentation are elements common to both forms of obtaining
information. documentation are elements common to both forms
of obtaining information.
Of paramount importance are the myriad of legal requirements
attendant to
interrogations that are absent in interviews.
The effective interviewer/interrogator must be knowledgeable in
the art and science
of criminal investigation and know how to use psychology,
salesmanship, and
dramatics.
Persuasiveness and perseverance are essential to success. The
interviewer/interrogator must make himself or herself easy to
talk to. By the
appropriate use of vocal inflection, modulation, and emphasis,
even the Miranda

25. warnings can be presented to a suspect in such a way as not to
cause the suspect
to immediately assume a defensive posture. The words can be
spoken without
creating an adversarial atmosphere. The interviewer/interrogator
must have a
flexible personality and must be able to convey empathy,
sympathy, anger, fear, and
joy at various times, as needed, but must always truly remain
objective.
It is important that the interviewer/interrogator keep an open
mind, receptive to all
information regardless of its nature.
Police officers conduct interviews in a number of situations.
The most
common is the on-the-scene interview.common is the on-the-
scene interview.
The physical circumstances under which the interview takes
place can be
critical to the value of the information obtained.
Although convenience of the witness is important to a
successful interview,

26. the interviewer need not relinquish the psychological advantage
in selecting
the time and place of the interview.
Privacy is of the utmost importance in conducting interviews.
The physical and emotional states of the witnesses are important
in
conducting or in determining whether to conduct an interview.
The success of both the interviewer or interrogator and the
interview or interrogation will
often be determined by the time and dedication committed to
preparing for the interview or often be determined by the time
and dedication committed to preparing for the interview or
interrogation. Both the interviewer or interrogator must become
familiar with the facts of the
case under investigation and the victim.
A Witness
If the interview is to be conducted with a witness other than the
victim, the interviewer
should find out as much about the witness as possible before
conducting the interview
including motivations, perceptions and barriers that might exist.

27. The Offense
It is necessary that the investigator know specifically what
crime or crimes were allegedly
committed.
The Victim
The victim is a person, the investigator should learn as much as
possible about his or her
background, the nature of the injury or loss, attitudes toward the
investigation, and any
other useful information, such as the existence of insurance
property crime case.
The interrogator must evaluate himself or herself and the
conduct of the interrogation and
must begin to evaluate the suspect.
The Suspect
The investigation should reveal as much personal background
information on the suspect
as can be obtained.
Many investigators find it useful to complete a pre-interrogation
checklist to assist

28. them in adequately preparing for their meeting with the suspect.
Information provided by eyewitnesses to a criminal event is
relied on heavily by both
the police and courts in the investigative and adjudication
stages of our system of
justice, yet research indicates that eyewitness testimony may be
unreliable.
Human perception and memory are selective and constructive
functions, not exact
copiers of the event perceived—constructive in that gaps will be
filled to produce a
logical and complete sequence of events.
Experts distinguish a number of factors that limit a person’s
ability to give a
complete account of events or to identify people accurately. The
following are
among those factors.
1. The significance or insignificance of the event.
2. The length of the period of observation.

29. 3. Lack of ideal conditions.
4. Psychological factors internal to the witness.
5. The physical condition of the witness.
6. Expectancy.
The use of hypnosis as a means of aiding witnesses in recalling
facts buried in the
subconscious is often thought to overcome many of the
difficulties experienced in
seeking accurate human memory.
Hypnosis is often erroneously believed to be a form of sleep. In
fact, it is the
opposite. It is best described as a state of heightened awareness
in which the
subconscious is somewhat surfaced and the conscious is
somewhat repressed.
In this altered state of consciousness, the subject of hypnosis
has a heightened
degree of suggestibility, or hypersuggestibility.
Hypercompliance, closely related to hypersuggestibility, is a
desire on the part of the

30. hypnotized subject to please the hypnotist or others who have
supported the
hypnosis effort.
The third major area of concern about reliability of hypnotically
enhanced memory is
referred to as confabulation.
Several decades ago, Richard Bandler and John Grinder
recognized that
communication could be enhanced if the words and actions of
the interviewer and
interviewee were similar; thus, if the interviewer could “mirror”
the words and actions
of the witness or suspect, rapport would be more easily
established.
Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) embraces three simple
concepts.
First, neuro comes from the idea that behavior originates from
neurological
processes involving the five senses—seeing, hearing, smelling,
tasting, and feeling.
It is through these senses that we experience life.
Programming refers to how we organize our ideas and actions to

31. produce results.
An interviewer/interrogator that understands these concepts and
can get in “sync”
with the witness or suspect by mirroring or matching
mannerisms, actions, and
words can make communication barriers disappear, foster trust,
and create the flow
of desired information.
Regardless of the time, place, or setting of the interview, or
ultimately the type of
witness or victim interview, there exists some standardization in
technique.
An interview has a beginning, a middle (its main segment), and
an end
The cognitive interview technique was developed in the hope of
improving the
completeness and accuracy of eyewitness accounts while
avoiding some of the
legal pitfalls that surround the use of hypnosis.

32. The first step is to ask the witness to reconstruct the general
circumstances
surrounding the incident.
Second the investigator asks the witness to report everything
remembered about
the incident and all surrounding circumstances.
Step three is to have the witness recall the events in a different
order.
The fourth technique is to have the witness change perspectives.
Ernesto Miranda v. Arizona
The legal requirements pertaining to interrogations became of
critical concern
during the 1960s, and, as a result, the Supreme Court handed
down a landmark
decision that has dramatically affected the conditions under
which interrogations
take place.
The Supreme Court, in a five to four decision, spelled out the
requirements and

33. procedures to be followed by officers when conducting an in-
custody interrogation of
a suspect.
The right to remain silent.
The right to be told that anything said can and will be used in
court.
The right to consult with an attorney prior to answering any
questions and the right
to have an attorney present during interrogation.
The right to counsel. If the suspect cannot afford an attorney,
the court will appoint
one.
It is common practice for the officer to ask the suspect if he or
she understands the
rights as they have been explained. If the answer is yes, then the
officer may ask if
the subject wishes to talk with the officer. At this point, the
alternatives open to the
suspect are four:
The suspect may choose to remain silent.

34. The suspect may request counsel.
The suspect may waive his or her rights and agree to talk with
police without the
benefit of counsel.
There are certain basic rules an interrogator should keep in
mind when composing
and asking questions. For example, questions should not be
complex. Questions
should be short, direct and confined to one topic.
Deception is not always easy to detect but in general, there are
both verbal and
nonverbal cues that can be examined to determine whether a
suspect is telling the
truth or is being deceptive.
Verbal Signals. Verbal signals are generally easier for a
deceptive subject to control
than nonverbal signals.
Nonverbal Signals: Body Language. There are generally far
more nonverbal signals
and behavior than there are verbal.

35. Identical techniques do not work for all interrogations.
Approaches and questions
differ with the type of suspect being questioned.
The logical approach is based on common sense and sound
reasoning.
The emotional approach appeals to the suspect’s sense of honor,
morals,
righteousness, fair play, justice, family pride, religion, decency,
and restitution.
A sympathetic approach that gives the suspect a way out of a
predicament can
often be successful and because the suspect is offered the
opportunity to save face,
confessions are sometimes forthcoming.
When a suspect’s guilt is uncertain, the interrogator should
begin with an indirect
approach, assuming that the interrogator already possesses all
necessary facts.
The “Mutt-and-Jeff,” or good-guy/bad-guy, approach to
interrogation works in some
cases.
Playing one person against the other sometimes works when
there are at least two

36. suspects, both of whom swear they are telling the truth during
separate
interrogations.
Regardless of the amount of their preparation and experience
investigators or
interrogators can conduct a fully successful interview only if
they are good listeners.
Listening is as valuable in interview and interrogation as is
questioning.
To be effective, one must be an active listener, too. It has been
estimated that 65
percent of communication is nonverbal.
25
26