Product and quality aspects in fashion industry

1. A comprehensive Compilation by Rajesh sharma , Chandigarh
For reference purpose of students of fashion sector worldwide

2.  A variety of other materials are used in products.The type
and purpose of each material should be considered when
developing specifications.
 Shoulder pads shape and support the shoulder area of
apparel and functional clothing.
 Pads may range from those for business suit jackets and
blouses to those that protect such as the ones used in
hunting jackets.
 Pads may be made of fibrefill or foam.Types of pads may
also differ with target market.
 For example, pads used for menswear differ from those
used for women’s wear. Some shoulder pads are
assembled from a variety of materials; others consist of
foam only.The construction method for the shoulder pad
should be specified, that is, sewn, moulded, fused or cut.

3.  Sleeve headers of a fibre-web or wool provide additional support
for better quality tailored coats and jackets. Collar stays help
retain the shape on collar points.They are available in several
widths and weights and can be either sewn in or inserted after
production.
 Tapes of narrow plain or twill weave, knit or braid fabrics provide
shape retention and appeal.Tapes are used to stabilize seams in
knits and bias-cut products, cover or protect stitching, retain
shape of the fabric edges, outline product features or bind raw
edges.
 Tapes cut from fashion fabric ensure that colour, texture and
weight match the fashion fabric.
 Bra cups support, shape and smooth the breast area of women’s
wear that may be worn without support garments. Bra cups are
often included in swimwear and some evening gowns.They may
contain materials like foam or fibrefill to enhance breast size and
shape.

4.  Labels provide information to the manufacturer, retailer and
consumer.
 Some information, such as fibre content (generic name and
percentage), care information, country of origin, and brand
name or RN/WPL number, are required.
 The manner in which information is presented may be
regulated.
 For example, theTextile Fibre Products Identification Act
states that fibre blends be listed as a percentage in
descending order by generic fibre name and that, if trade
names are used, they be presented in the same type and
colour font as the fibre name.
 Other information, such as size, colour, style number,
construction features, trade name, and use of union labour
are voluntary.

5.  Specifications should identify the number and type of
labels, information to be included on each label, location
of each label (that is, centre back of neck, waistband,
attached to sleeve, or looped around button),
presentation method (that is, sewn-in, attached to
garment, or as part of the packaging), fabrication method
(that is, woven in, printed, textile, or paper) and size.
 Sewn-in labels must be compatible with the other
materials used in the product and the care as stated on the
care label. For sewn-in labels, location may be specified in
the Care Label Regulation and is based on product type.
For example, pants and slacks generally have the label
located at the waistband of the centre back seam

6.  Sewn-in labels should be comfortable to the user,
durable, easy for the operator to attach, permanently
legible, and appropriate in cost.
 Many types are available in terms of fibre content, fabric
structure, size, colour and information. Some labels are
jacquard weaves; others are printed. If wet or chemical
finishing is to be done, labels should be resistant to
alterations from these processes.
 Because the Care Label Regulation specifies that the
labels are permanent, it might be worthwhile to
determine the manner in which the label responds to
use and care and how long the label remains legible.

7.  Hangtags include information at point of sale, but
they are not required to be permanent.They often
include fibre content information, disclaimers or
cautions regarding fabric appearance or
performance, extra buttons or yarn, size, colour,
styling information, and brand or company
information.
 Hangtags are usually printed on paper or board that
may be made from recycled materials. Weight,
colour and finish of the paper should be specified, as
should the design and information to be included.

8.  The principle involved in inspection is the early
detection of defects, feedback of this information to
appropriate people and determination of the cause,
ultimately resulting in the correction of the problem.
 The main objective of inspection is the detection of
defects and non-conformances as early as possible in
the manufacturing process so that time and money
are not wasted later on in either correcting the defect
or writing off defective garments. For inspection to be
effective, the entire loop (fig 4.1) must be completed.

10.  In-process inspection means the inspection of parts before
they are assembled into a complete product. In apparel
manufacturing, this means inspection at various points in the
entire manufacturing process from spreading fabric to
pressing and finishing. The idea behind in-process inspection
is to inspect or check the quality of component parts as close
to manufacturing as possible and thereby identify the source
of quality problems as early in the manufacturing process as
possible.

11.  This type of inspection is designed to uncover deficiencies in
workmanship as well as equipment malfunction. In-process
inspection can be performed by either quality control
inspectors or individual operators themselves after they
perform their respective operations.
 This will result in minimizing the need for later repairs and
rework. Each production operation performed correctly
makes for a smooth running plant with low operating costs.
Poor quality at any stage in production compounds itself and
can be expected to increase total cost.

12.  Various factors that can affect spreading should be checked,
such as ply alignment, ply tension or slackness, bowing and
slicing.The greater the variation in either with or length
alignment, the greater the waste in-precision cutting
because the ends and sides must be trimmed to the
narrowest and shortest plies. A tight spread will contract
after cutting, resulting in smaller or skimpier components
than what should be. A slack spread possesses excess length
within the stipulated end of the spread. Cut components
from slack spread will tend to be oversized. Bowing is the
distortion of filling yarns from a straight line across the width
of a fabric.

13.  This would cause unbalanced stresses in the fabric, resulting
in slackness and tightness in the ply that will lead to
undersized components. Also, the garment component
containing such a defect will tend to twist or distort in
laundering or dry-cleaning. Splicing is the overlapping of two
ends of fabric in a ply. A short or insufficient overlap will
result in incompletely cut pattern sections and a long overlap
will result in waste. Static in the fabric may cause a distorted
spread, resulting in incompletely cut pattern sections. Static
can be eliminated by either increasing the humidity in the
cutting room or using static eliminators.

14.  Table 4.1 Spreading Inspection Form
 J. Lowe and P. D. Lowcock (in their bookAn Approach to
Quality Control in the Clothing Industry) list the following
possible spreading and pattern defects:
1. Not enough plies to cover the quantity of garments
required.
2. Narrow fabric.
3. Plies not all facing in the correct direction.That is, not all
the plies are spread face down, face up, or face to face as
required.
4. Mismatching of checks. Plies not spread accurately one
above another ready for cutting.

15.  Patterns not aligned with respect to the fabric grain.As a result, a
garment may not drape or fit properly.
 Line definitions poor (e.g. chalk too thick, indistinctly printed line,
perforated lay not fully powdered), leading to inaccurate cutting.
 Skimpy marking – Either the marker did not use the outside edge of the
pattern or the pattern was moved or swung after partial marking to
squeeze the pattern into a smaller space in the interest of fabric
economy.Alternatively, the pattern is worn around the edges and should
be replaced.
 Generous marking – A combination of points 7 and 8 results in
components being sewn together with puckering or pleating.

16. 5. Patterns not facing in the correct direction on napped
fabrics.
6. Patterns not aligned with respect to the fabric grain. As a
result, a garment may not drape or fit properly.
7. Line definitions poor (e.g. chalk too thick, indistinctly
printed line, perforated lay not fully powdered), leading to
inaccurate cutting.
8. Skimpy marking – Either the marker did not use the outside
edge of the pattern or the pattern was moved or swung
after partial marking to squeeze the pattern into a smaller
space in the interest of fabric economy.Alternatively, the
pattern is worn around the edges and should be replaced.

17. 9. Generous marking – A combination of points 7 and 8
results in components being sewn together with puckering
or pleating.
10. Not enough knife clearance freedom.
11. Mismatched checks and stripes.
12. Notches and drill marks omitted, indistinct or misplaced.

18.  Cutting quality is a prerequisite for quality in a finished
product. In addition, cut work quality affects the ease and
cost with which construction is accomplished.The quality of
work leaving the cutting room is determined by how true
the cut fabric parts are to the pattern; how smooth or rough
the cut surface is, material or fabric defects in the cut fabric
parts; shade differences between cut fabric pieces within a
bundle.
 In addition, various factors in cutting that can affect the
subsequent quality should be checked, such as under- or
overcut, size, placement and sequence alignment of notches
and drill holes, ripped or pulled yarns, etc.

19.  Deborah Dunlap (in Quality Control in the Cutting Room,
Bobbin) lists the following defects that may arise in cutting:
 Frayed Edges –This may impede cutting time by clogging
the knife action and/or mar the fabric with rips or pulled
yarns.The amount of fraying depends on fabric construction
and finish. Improper cutting tools or dull knives cause
excessive fraying in a pattern as the section is cut.
 Fuzzy, Ragged or Serrated Edges –The result of poor
cutting implements. Such edges will impede sewing or
diminish sewing quality. Such a condition is caused by faulty
knife edges such as burrs, chips or dullness.

20.  Ply to Ply Fusion – Adjacent plies in a block are fused
together, which makes it difficult for the sewing machine
operator to pick up a single ply quickly. Fusion occurs due to
heat created by excessively high speed of cutting or by the
friction of a dull knife.To prevent fusion, check knife speed,
keep knives sharp, place wax paper between fabric plies, and
lubricate cutting blade.
 Single Edge Fusion –This consists of a single ply whose cut
yarn ends are fused to form a hard brittle rim on the cut
edge. Sometimes, this is desirable to prevent fraying;
however, hardness and brittleness are undesirable if they
impede sewing manipulation or may result in seams
uncomfortable to the consumer.

21.  Pattern Precision – Misshape or distortion of the pattern
perimeter as cut.Whether it is under- or overcut is due to the
poor manual control of the cutting machine and poor lines
on the marker.To assure precision in a pattern, check
markers before cutting, use tensionless spreading, or allow
time for the fabric to relax. After a cut, check the top, bottom
and middle plies against the pattern.
 Notches – Notch size refers to the depth of a notch. If the
depth is too great, the notch may show after a garment is
sewn. If the notches are too small, sewing operators may
have difficulty locating them quickly, resulting in decreased
efficiency.

22.  Misplacement of a notch may be due to an improper spread
marker, poor control of a cutting machine with the cutter’s
notching tool stroking diagonally instead of vertically,
incorrect marker in that the notches for mating parts do not
coincide. Check notch placement against mating pieces.
Quality control in stitching may be a problem if notches are
not aligned.
 Drilling –The drill hole may be too large or too small in
diameter. In addition, a drill may become too hot due to high
speed or wrong size, causing the plies to fuse

23.  In-process inspection in sewing involves the
inspection of work from each operator, with a
quality standard established to limit the
amount of bad work permitted and a
provision for operators to re-inspect and
repair entire bundles if the limit be exceeded.
The decision on where to place inspection
stations will be influenced by various factors,

24. 1. Needle damage as evidenced by holes, picked threads, ruptured
threads or other damage to the fabric; caused by wrong size or type of
needle, blunt needle, needle heat or machine feeding difficulty.
2. Feed damage, particularly on thicker or sheer fabrics, or when
machining over transverse seams, from incorrect type of teeth,
excessive pressure by foot, improper alignment of feed and foot,
damaged throat plate, excessive machine speed.
3. Skipped stitches, from the hook irregularly failing to pick up the loop of
thread from a needle’s eye owing to a number of causes.
4. Thread breaks, arising from too thick a thread for a needle, too thin a
thread, needle heat, operator working un-rhythmically, or too tight
tensions.

25. 5 Broken stitches, arising from the wrong stitch type,
too tight tensions, a badly formed joint in the seam
where the second line of stitch runs over the first
and cracks it, sharp feeds, and too great a pressure.
6 Seam grin, arising from too loose a tension or too
large a stitch or the use of the wrong stitch type.
7 Seam pucker, because of incorrect handling by the
operator, misaligned notches, or tight thread
tensions.

26.  8 Pleated seams, an extreme form of 7, where
operator failed to ease in fullness evenly.
 9 Wrong stitch density.Too many give rise to
jamming and rupture of fabric threads; too few to
grinning or weak seams.
 10 Uneven stitch density. Operator causes machine
to snatch and does not allow machine to control
fabric.
 11 Staggered stitch, from faulty feed motion,
incorrect needle and other machine parts.

27.  10 Improperly formed stitches, caused by and tension, incorrectly
adjusted timing, ill fitting machine components
 11 Oil spots or stains.
 12 Seaming defects ( usually caused by errors arising from the
interaction of the operator and machine in handling of the garment ):
 Incorrect or uneven width of inlay, arising from bad handling by operator,
incorrectly set guide, incorrectly adjusted folder. In extreme cases, the
seams burst open, raw edges show, slippage of weave threads occur, or
notches are exposed.
 Irregular or incorrect shape of sewing line in top stitching, arising from
lack of or badly set guide, not following a mark, or incorrect handling.
 Insecure back stitching, because subsequent rows do not cover the first
row of stitching.
 Wrong seam or stitch type used.
 Wrong shade of thread used.

28.  15 Assembly defects ( perhaps caused by errors arising in marking and
cutting, as well as sewing operations in the sewing room, or a
combination of these)
 Finished components not correct to size or shape or not symmetrical.
 Interlining incorrectly positioned, twisted, too full, too tight, cockling.
 Lining too full, too tight, showing below the bottom of the garment,
twisted, incorrectly pleated and so on.
 Parts, components, closures, or features omitted, caused by bad work
flow, wrongly printed work tickets, parts omitted in cutting, careless
operator.
 Garment parts shaded owing to being mixed after cutting.
 Mismatched trimmings.

29.  Fusing operation in a clothing company is controlled based on the test
results of the peel test as the peel strength or bond strength is an
excellent indicator of the quality of fusing.The feel or bond strength
depends on the time that the pieces to be fused take to pass through the
fusing press, temperature of the fusing press and the pressure at which
the fusing takes place.Companies generally adjust time, temperature,
and pressure for given type of material to be fused based on the
manufacturer’s recommendation, in order to attain certain peel strength.

30.  Generally peel strength tests are done three times a day, in
the morning shortly after the press starts, about mid
morning, and in the mid afternoon. Some companies who
have figured out through trial and error what temperature,
time and pressure combination to maintain for certain peel
strength for a given material do not perform peel strength
tests three times a day but they simply maintain and control
that combination which gives them the desired peel
strength.

31.  The basic objective of finishing must be quality and appearance.
Appearance is the basis of most consumers’ judgement on whether or
not to purchase a garment.
 The quality of a pressing operation can be measured by evaluating the
following:
 Burned or scorched garments.
 Water spots or stains
 Glass and/or change in colour (original shade)
 Flattened nap or surface
 Broken zippers, buttons, etc.
 Creases not correctly formed.

32.  Fabric of finished garment not smooth, wrinkle-free and
showing its proper appearance.
 Edges wavy and stretched or thick and cockling.
 Garments not thoroughly dried.
 Pockets not smooth.
 Lining showing pleats, creases, wrinkles, shine.
 Garments not correctly moulded, either in detail or total
silhouette.
 Shrinking due to heat and moisture.

33.  Final inspection ensures that a finished product meets required
standards and specifications. Final inspection usually is done at the
production facility, but in some cases it is done at the distribution centre
or shipping facility. Final product inspection means examining the
product before packaging to verify that it meets specifications related to
design, size, fit, appearance, construction, and function.When final
inspection occurs after packaging, many product details, product size,
and product fit cannot be evaluated. An earlier product inspection would
have been able to assess adherence to these standards and
specifications.




34.  A final inspection based on a statistical sample is ideal if in-process
inspection, training and other quality assurance practices have been
implemented, so that quality is incorporated into the product throughout
the process.Companies that engage in 100 percent final inspection may
do so because of insufficient in-process inspection during production.
Companies with minimal in-process inspection tend to rely on final
inspection to differentiate products that meet requirements (first quality
merchandise) from those that do not (second quality merchandise).
These companies inspect all their products after production has been
completed; they do not understand that quality is built into a product
from the initial planning stages through production.This means that the
company is separating production into two categories: products that will
be sold for first quality price and products that will be sold for less than
first quality price. Unfortunately, the investment in each product is the
same regardless of the price for which it is sold.

35.  Merchandise that undergoes this type of final inspection may carry an
inspection sticker.
 Documents and other prerequisites needed handy during final buyer
inspection:
 Buyer order sheet
 Specification sheet
 Measurement sheet
 Approved lab dips, accessories and trim sheet
 Correspondence done between merchandiser and buyer
 Quality audit form
 Earlier quality inspection reports ( initial inspection, mid inspection or
any other inspection)
 Lab testing reports (if required by the buyer)
 Original (approved) sample counter
 Measuring tape
 Inspection station

36.  The goal of a company committed to quality is to provide
products and services that meet customer expectations.
Manufacturers need to be sure that the materials and the
processes they use and the finished products they sell meet
that goal.
 Retailers need to be able to assess that the products they sell
meet that goal. Retailers need to be able to assess that the
products they buy meet their expectations in terms of
performance, size, fit, and consistency.
 Companies need to assess the characteristics and
performance of the materials and the quality of finished
products.

37.  Textile materials and finished products can be assessed in
several different ways.
 Each provides valuable information, but the type of
information differs in its nature and application.
 Companies may use one way to identify the appropriateness
of materials or production procedures for the product’s end
use.
 They will probably use a different way to identify product
adherence to company standards and specifications,
appropriateness of design or materials, and the target
market’s assessment of and satisfaction with the product.

38.  Laboratory testing evaluates characteristics or performance
of materials using standard procedures in a specialized
facility.The facility could consist of one or more rooms or a
separate building on the site. Standard test methods are
used in assessing characteristics, quality, and performance.
Trained technicians or specialists conduct the procedures.
The majority of the equipment that is used may be
specialised for each measurement of the material or product.
For example, when measuring resistance to pilling, a piece of
equipment is used that subjects fabric to conditions where
pills are likely to form.

39.  In supplier testing, the company that supplies a material or a
product tests it to make sure that it meets the requirements
listed in the contract or agreement with the buyer.
 Suppliers often test their products as part of their quality
assurance program to ensure that production is consistent
on quality, characteristics, and performance.
 Suppliers may take shortcuts with standard practices,
especially if they are determining values for use within the
company.

40.  When outside companies rely on suppliers to test the
materials or products for adherence to requirements,
 they need to recognize that suppliers’ results may reflect an
inherent bias to ensure that their goods are acceptable to
buyers.
 Most companies that rely on in-house supplier testing
periodically check the results to make sure that no bias is
present. Some problems with poor performance of products
can be traced to supplier testing. This is especially
problematic when buyers fail to check the reliability and
accuracy of the supplier’s test results.

41.  In-house testing involves evaluating the materials or
products within the company that has produced them. In-
house testing was common with large and vertically
integrated companies because they can afford the costs
associated with maintaining specialised testing facilities and
employing trained staff.The lab supports the firm’s
reputation for a high-quality product, obtains repeat
business, provides a dependable source for solving
problems, and maintains control of production quality. In-
house testing often works with selected procedures that are
done on a regular basis by technicians who have training in
conducting those tests.

42.  Companies often contract certain procedures with outside
testing labs when tests are beyond the capability of the
equipment and staff or when requests for procedures occur
with such low frequency that it is cheaper to have an outside
lab to do testing.

43.  Independent or contract testing is performed by a separate
business organization that specifically tests materials and
products for other companies.These businesses may
specialise in particular procedures or types of materials.
Independent labs must be reliable, have trained personnel,
current copies of appropriate industry test methods,
appropriate equipment, and the ability to respond quickly for
contracted services. Many companies work with the same
independent testing lab on a regular basis.

44.  Using independent labs can be time consuming and
expensive, but less expensive than providing a specialised
lab in-house. In addition, technicians in the testing lab tend
to specialise in certain areas or techniques. For example,
identification of fibres is an expensive and detailed process.
People who have extensive experience and work with fibre
identification on a regular basis will be more precise and
accurate in their work than will those who analyze fibre
content occasionally.

45.  Consumers consider the dimensional change in a garment to
be critical performance characteristic.The excessive
shrinkage or growth of a garment can make that item un-
wearable. Colour loss or change may make a garment
unacceptable but it does not necessarily make it unusable.
Holes and tears might be repaired and frequently can be
anticipated by judging the quality of a fabric. Dimensional
change is hidden from the consumer until it is too late.

46.  Garment shrinkage (due to laundering, dry-cleaning,
steaming or pressing) occurs at three levels: fabric, yarn and
fibre.
 The total observed shrinkage is the resultant shrinkage at
these three levels.
 The contribution of each to the total depends on the fabric
and yarn structure, as well as the nature of the fibre.
 For example, cotton fabric may shrink as much as 10% under
conditions that cause only 2% shrinkage in the component
fibres and yarns. In cotton fabrics, in general, shrinkage
occurs principally at the fabric level. It is for this reason that
cotton fabrics are successfully pre-shrunk by a mechanical
process known as “sanforizing”.

47.  Relaxation:
 When yarns are woven into a fabric, they are subjected to considerable
tensions, particularly in the warp direction, although the filling (weft)
yarns are also stretched. In the subsequent tentering and calendering
operations, this “stretch” may be further increased and temporarily “set”
in the fabric.The fabric is then in a state of dimensional instability, and
when it is wetted thoroughly, it tends to recover dimensional stability,
which results in a contraction of yarns, giving rise to what is termed “
relaxation shrinkage”.The contraction in the filling direction is normally
considerably less than in the warp direction, although in some fabrics it
can be high enough to cause complaint unless steps are taken to
counteract it.

48.  Swelling:
Shrinkage that result from the swelling and de-
swelling of fibres because of the absorption of
water is called swelling shrinkage. In a loosely
woven fabric, the effect of this swelling of yarns is
greater than in a tightly woven fabric, since there
is greater freedom of movement.

49.  Shrinkage of a garment can occur when it goes through one
or more of the following processes:
 Laundering, mostly relaxation and swelling shrinkage
(felting shrinkage in the case of wool fibres).
 Dry-cleaning, mostly relaxation and swelling shrinkage
(felting shrinkage in the case of wool fibres).
 Steaming, contraction shrinkage in the case of synthetic
fabrics.
 Pressing, contraction shrinkage in the case of synthetic
fabrics.

50.  “Durable press” is a term used to describe a fabric or
garment that will retain its original shape and smoothness
and sharpness of crease through wear and repeated
laundering and not require ironing.
 This means that it will resist wrinkling and retain its creases
and pleats for, it is hoped, the lifetime of the garment

51.  Permanent press, durable press, wash and wear, minimum
care and so on are rather confusing as to what they exactly
mean in terms of the ironing required after laundering.
Therefore, the following definitions may help one
understand these terms:
 Durable press/ permanent press:This term applies to
fabrics or garments requiring no ironing after laundering.
 Wash and wear/ minimum care:This term applies to fabrics
or garments requiring touch up or minimum ironing after
laundering.

52.  In all three methods, the test specimen (garment or fabric) is
laundered five times in an automatic home washer and a
dryer at durable press setting, using one of the washing
conditions mentioned in the test method followed.
 After the specimen is taken out of the dryer, it is allowed to
hang in the standard conditions for testing (65% RH and 21°
±1°C) for at least 2 hours.Then, the test specimen is given a
rating of 1 through 5 by visually comparing it with the
photographic standards.
 The rating of 5 indicates the best or almost perfect (Smooth
and sharp) appearance while the rating of 1 indicates the
worst or most wrinkled fabric, puckered seam, and flat
crease appearance.

53.  The strength properties of apparel have traditionally been
considered the most obvious indicator of the service life of
apparel.The strength of a fabric or garment indicates its
ability to resist mechanical damage due to the stresses of
normal wear and laundering or dry-cleaning.
 The strength properties of apparel can be divided into the
following three areas:
 Fabric strength
 Seam strength
 Resistance to yarn slippage

54.  Fabric strength can be divided into three
areas:
 its resistance to tensile force (breaking
strength),
 its resistance to tearing/ shearing force (tear
strength)
 its resistance to bursting force (bursting
strength).

55.  Breaking strength tests are used for woven fabrics.
 Breaking strength of a fabric can be tested in either length or
width or both.
 A specimen 15 x 10 cm is placed between two sets of jaws,
7.6cm apart.These jaws are then pulled away from each
other creating a tensile force on the fabric specimen,
ultimately resulting a break in the fabric specimen.The force
and elongation at this point are noted, which are strength
and elongation break.

56.  The tear strength of a fabric refers to its resistance to tearing
or shearing force. Resistance to tearing is of importance in
clothing fabrics such as those used for shirting, blouses,
interlining and in military fabrics such as those used for
parachutes.Tear tests are not suitable for knit fabrics, felts or
nonwoven fabrics, with the possible exception of machine
direction tears in some light-weight nonwoven fabrics.
 For measuring tear strength of woven fabrics, a rectangular
specimen is cut in the centre of a short edge to form a two
tounged (trouser shaped) specimen, in which one tounge of
the specimen is gripped in the upper jaw and the other
tounge is gripped in the lower jaw of a tensile testing
machine.The separation of the jaws is continuously

57.  Bursting strength tests are used for knitted fabrics,
lightweight woven fabrics and non-woven fabrics.
 Bursting strength is the force, uniformly distributed over a
given area, needed to break a fabric when applied at right
angles to the fabric.
 Although generally used for knitted fabrics, this test does
have application in testing woven fabrics that are stressed
equally in every direction when in use, since it picks the
weakest yarns, warp and filling wise and breaks them first,
thereby indicating the lowest pressure the cloth will resist.

58.  Seam failure in a garment can occur because
of either the failure of the sewing thread,
leaving the fabric intact or fabric rupture,
leaving the seam intact or both breaking at
the same time. Seam strength is tested in
almost the same manner as fabric breaking
and bursting strength.

59.  In some garments, before seam failure occurs, enough yarn slippage
(filling yarns shifting over warp yarns or vice versa) develops to render
the garment unusable, because such failure is not readily repairable by
seaming.Therefore, measuring resistance to slippage of yarns in woven
fabrics is of importance in quality control.
Seam slippage may occur in a garment or household item because of:
 A low number of warp or filling yarns to an inch in relation to particular
yarn and fabric construction characteristics;
 Too shallow seam allowances (any strain on the fabric at the seams
causes the yarns to shift);
 Too tight a fit (undue strain during wear may cause yarns to shift at the
seam line) and
 Improper seam construction (not enough stitches per inch).

60.  FABRIC STRETCH PROPERTIES
 Stretch in terms of care refers to an increase in size because of some
action of cleaning; stretch in terms of comfort refers to an increase in one
dimension because of force exerted on the material.
 This increase is usually accompanied by a decrease in another dimension.
There are two categories of stretch fabrics based on degree of
stretchability: power or action stretch and comfort stretch.
 Power or action stretch, as the name implies, provides a fabric with a
high degree of extensibility and quick recovery.The stretch factor
generally ranges from at least 30 to 50% or more with no more than 5 to
6 % loss in recovery. Such stretch fabrics are at best adapted to skiwear,
swimwear, athletic clothing and professional sportswear.

61.  Comfort stretch applies to fabrics with less
than 30% stretch factor and no more than 2
to 5% loss in recovery. Such fabrics are used
for everyday clothing that needs only a
moderate degree of elasticity.This category
covers a wide range of end uses in both
apparel and the home, as well as in
transportation upholstery.

62.  Flammability is the way a material reacts to heat, the manner in which it
ignites and burns, the ease or difficulty with which a burning textile is
extinguished, the type of ash or melt remaining, and the amount of
smoke produced.
 Flammable materials tend to ignite quickly, burn rapidly, and extinguish
with difficulty. Flammability is a common property of mot materials used
for apparel, furnishings and some industrial products.
 Flame resistant or flame retardant materials are made in several ways.
They may incorporate fibres that are less likely to ignite, that burn more
slowly or that self-extinguish.
 Or materials may be treated with a finish that makes ignition more
difficult, decreases the speed of burning, or makes self-extinguishing
more likely. Some test methods simulate accidental ignition and measure
the time it takes for the material to burn. Other test methods expose the
material to a small fame and measure the amount of oxygen consumed
or the amount of heat generated.

63.  The flammability of clothing textiles is governed byTitle 16 CFR (Code of
Federal Regulations) 1610.
 It excludes interlining fabrics and certain hats, gloves and footwear.This
regulation requires that a piece of fabric, which is placed in a holder at a
45° angle and exposed to a flame for 1 second, not ignite and spread
flame up the length of the sample in less than 3.5 seconds for smooth
fabrics or 4.0 seconds for napped fabrics.
 This requirement eliminated easy-to-ignite brushed fabrics and
prohibited the introduction of equally hazardous textile material.Today,
most fabrics in general apparel use meet the requirements of this
regulation.

64.  The principle behind this test method is measurement of ease of ignition
and the speed with which flame spreads along with visual observation of
flame intensity.
 These three factors are used to separate various fabrics into three classes
of flammability as described below, thus assisting in a judgement of
fabric suitability for clothing.
 This test is designated to indicate textiles that ignite easily and once
ignited burn with sufficient intensity and rapidity so as to be hazardous
when worn.This method can be applied to the testing of textiles in
general; however, the scale of evaluation is applicable only to textiles
used for apparel, for which three classes of flammability are defined:

65.  Class 1, normal flammability-These textiles are generally accepted by
the trade as having no unusual burning characteristics.
 Class 2, intermediate flammability –These textiles are recognized by the
trade as having flammability characteristics between normal and intense
burning.
 Class 3, rapid and intense burning –These textiles are considered
dangerously flammable and are recognized by the trade as being
unsuitable for clothing because of their rapid and intense burning.
 Although all fabrics are usually tested in their original state, it is also
necessary to dry-clean and/or wash and retest those fabrics known to
contain fire retardant finish or to have any other condition that could
cause

66.  This test is used exclusively for testing the flammability of children’s
sleepwear underTitle 16 CFR 1615 and 1616.
 Summary of test method: a sample consists of five test specimens, each
measuring 3.5 inch X 10.0 inch. Each specimen is mounted in a special U-
shaped holder. After oven drying for 30 minutes at 105°C and cooling for
30 min in a dedicator, the specimens are suspended vertically in the test
chamber, one at a time, and subjected to flame impingement along the
centre bottom edge for 3 seconds and allowed to burn.The char length
for each specimen is measured and recorded. Char length is the distance
forms the original lower edge of a specimen to the end of the tear or void
in the charred, burned, or damaged area of the specimen.Testing is
required as produced or after one laundering and after 50 launderings in
accordance with AATCC test method 124.

67.  Test criteria:
 Three samples consisting of five specimens each are tested. An item is
considered acceptable if:
 The average char length of the five specimens that make up a sample
does not exceed 7 inches, and
 The full specimen burn of any individual specimen is not its full length,
i.e. 10 inches.
 There are provisions in these regulations for the flammability testing of
fabric, garment prototype and production samples.

68.  Factors of primary importance in flammability are ease of ignition, rate
of flame propagation, generation of smoke and noxious gases, total heat
emission, flame temperature, thermoplastic behaviour of the material
and ease of extinction of flame. Ease of ignition and the rate of flame
propagation are the two factors most commonly known and upon which
most current flammability legislation is based.
 Ease of ignition in general varies as the fabric weight; the heavier the
fabric the longer it takes to ignite.
 Surface character of course, has a bearing on this factor, a loose pile
fabric usually igniting more easily than a compact smooth surface fabric.
 Flame propagation usually works according to the same principle; the
heavier the fabric, the more slowly is the flame propagated, surface
character and construction again have an effect.

69.  Smoke generation can be hazard in three ways; by
obstruction of vision and induction of lachrymation, by
irritation of the respiratory system and by asphyxiation
following aspiration. In the same way noxious gases can be a
hazard.Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are produced,
as well as other gases as hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen
chloride, hydrogen sulphide, phosgene, bromine, chlorine,
sulphur dioxide etc depending on the textile assembly and
surrounding conditions.

70.  Fabric flammability appears to be affected by laundry products that
leave hard water detergent or soap residues. It can be restored by
practices which remove these deposits.
 Some laundry practices cause fabric damage in affecting the removal of
deposits.The safest and most preferred method of removal is by
laundering in high phosphate detergents or by supplementing reduced
phosphate detergent with additional water softening agent.
 The quantity of mineral deposit produced depends on water type.The
manner in which a mineral deposit is deposited on a fabric surface is
affected by the order of addition sequence used in dispensing the
products in the washer.

71.  Colour fastness is the property of a dye or print that enables it to retain
its depth and shade throughout the wear life of a product.
 Dyes are generally considered fast when they resist the deteriorating
influences (such as laundering or dry-cleaning) to which they will be
subjected in the use for which the fabric is intended.
 Consumer demand for fabrics with excellent fastness properties is of
great concern to apparel manufacturers.
 Therefore, if apparel manufacturers can test fabrics for various colour
fastness properties, they will be able to discuss their results with the
fabric suppliers, should any fabric need an improvement in colour
fastness.

72.  Through numerous technical committees, the AATCC has
developed laboratory test procedures that indicate the
fastness of colours and predict their performance in use. In
the colour fastness evaluation of fabrics or apparel, a change
in the original colour (shade) and/or staining or colour
transfer on the standard test fabric is evaluated by visually
comparing the test specimen to the AATCC gray scale for
colour change and staining and chromatic transference
scale.

73.  The difference in the colour change and the
amount of colour transfer are given a
numerical value ranging from 5 to 1. Class 5
indicates no change in original colour (shade)
and/or no colour transfer. Class 1 indicates a
noticeable change in colour (shade) and/or
heavy colour transfer

74.  One problem in washing is poor colourfastness. New items may
experience colour loss when washing removes excess colour that was
not rinsed off after dyeing. In some cases, the loss of colour is noticeable.
In other cases, the product may look the same but the colour transfer
has occurred. In colour transfer, dye rinsed off of one material bonds with
and stains another material.
 Colour loss may occur when weakly bonded dye molecules migrate out
of the fibre. Both colour loss and colour change may occur when dye
molecules are degraded. When a dye molecule is degraded or damaged,
it may loose its ability to produce colour or remain bonded to the fibre.
Thus, the total number of molecules colouring a material decreases.
When this loss applies to a sufficiently high percentage of dye molecules,
the product looks faded.

75.  The method of testing is intended for determining the resistance of the
colour of textiles of all kinds of dry-cleaning.
 This test is not suitable for the evaluation of the durability of textile
finishes, nor is it intended for use in evaluating the resistance of colour to
water spotting and steam pressing, which are normally involved in
commercial dry-cleaning.
 However, this test gives an indication of the results to be obtained with
repeated commercial dry-cleaning.
 This test is done with a launder-o-meter in the same way as that for
colourfastness to laundering/ washing, except that instead of using soap
solution, dry-cleaning solution is used.

76.  The resistance to degradation (or fading) of fabric dyes and prints due to
light is an important requirement of a garment because without such
resistance, the garment may change colour and such colour may not be
acceptable to a consumer from an aesthetic point of view.
 The test instrument used in the colourfastness to light tests is called the
fade-o-meter and/or weather-o-meter.This instrument uses, as a light
source, either a carbon- or xenon-arc lamp respectively.
 One of the reasons for using an artificial light source in light fastness
testing is to speed up the results. In order to be reliable, however, the
light source under consideration should simulate the effects of natural
sunlight.One indicator of a good correlation between two light sources is
a comparison of their spectral energy distribution.

77.  Perspiration is a saline, slightly acidic fluid secreted by sweat glands.The
salt and acidic pH of perspiration can create problems with colour
fastness.The test method is intended for use in determining the fastness
of coloured textiles to the effects of perspiration. It is applicable to dyed,
printed, or otherwise coloured textile fibres, yarns and fabrics of all kinds
and to the testing of dyestuffs as applied to textiles.
 A specimen of coloured textile 6 X 6 cm is wet with a simulated
perspiration solution, subjected to a fixed mechanical pressure in contact
with a piece of multi-fibre test fabric, also wet with the simulated
perspiration solution, and allowed to dry slowly at a slightly elevated
temperature for 6 hours.Then, the specimen is evaluated for colour
change and staining on the multi-fibre test fabric with the help of the
AATCC gray scale for colour change and staining or chromatic
transference scale and rated as explained earlier.


78.  Durability testing of materials frequently
focuses on the fashion fabric, but several
standard test methods have been developed
for examining the performance of such other
materials as fusible interlinings, nonwovens,
and fasteners. Durability procedures can be
categorised as those that focus on strength
aspects and those that focus on the effect of
friction (abrasion) on the material.

79.  The purpose of fusible interlinings is to give shape or form and improve
the aesthetics of a garment.There is no better way to test fusible
interlining other than to actually fuse the interlining with the end-item
fabric and evaluate such samples before starting mass production.
Therefore, at least three 30 X 30 cm pieces of the end-item fabric are cut
and fused to 23 X 23 cm pieces of fusible interlining at the recommended
(by the fusible interlining supplier/ manufacturer) time, temperature and
pressure.Then these three specimens are checked for compatibility,
shrinkage and bond strength.

80.  Zippers can be tested using any one or more of following
ASTM test methods:
 Durability of finish of zippers to laundering
 Colourfastness of zippers to dry-cleaning
 Colourfastness of zippers to light
 Colourfastness of zippers to crocking
 Colourfastness of zippers to laundering
 Durability of finish of zippers to dry-cleaning
 Resistance of zippers to salt spray (fog)
 Measuring zipper dimensions
 Strength test of zippers
 Operability of zippers.

81.  4.1 Buttons
 ASTM D 5171, Impact Resistance of Plastic
Sew-through Flange Buttons, is important for
buttons that may be subjected to commercial
pressing on a regular basis. Impact
resistance measures the button’s resistance
to fracture when subjected to sudden
application of an external force

82.  4.2 Snap Fasteners
 The ability of snap fasteners to resist a pull perpendicular to
and parallel with the plane of the fasteners is addressed in
ASTM D 4846, Resistance to Unsnapping of Snap Fasteners.
Either a CRE or a CRT machine is used to test snaps attached
near the end of two layers of fabric. A suggestion is made to
test the snaps before laundering and after a specified
number of launderings.The force required to separate the
two parts of a snap is recorded in lbf.

83.  Two procedures are used to assess the durability performance of hook
and loop touch fasteners. Peel strength (ASTM D 5170, Peel Strength of
Hook and LoopTouch Fasteners) is assessed using CRE machine. Peel
Strength is a measure of the force required to separate the two parts of
the fastener.A standardized procedure is used to bond the two layers
together because the strength of the bond is related to the force with
which they are adhered. One free end of the mated tape is placed in each
clamp of the machine and the force in lbf required to separate the layers
is recorded.
 Shear strength (ASTM D 5169, Shear Strength of Hook and LoopTouch
Fasteners) is the amount of force required to cause the two parts to slide
on each other causing separation. Specimens are prepared so that they
overlap by several inches and mate with the other part.The unmated
part of each layer is clamped in place in the CRE machine and the force in
lbf required to separate the mated layers is recorded.

84.  There are two properties of an elastic
waistband that need testing:
 Fit for the labelled size
 Resistance to degradation (becoming loose,
losing elasticity) due to laundering

85.  This property cab be tested by stretching the waistband
about 5 cm more than the hip dimension for the labelled size
(to stimulate the condition that exists when putting on the
garment) and bringing back the waistband to the waist
dimension for the labelled size and measuring the force it
takes to keep the waistband stretched at that particular
dimension.Then similar garments must be wear tested and
the numerical value of the force required must be correlated
with actual comfort during wear.This testing can be done on
a tensile testing machine.Waist and hip dimensions may be
obtained from various publications.
 II. Resistance to Degradation, Accelerated
Aging Method

86.  Take three specimens of the elastic that would be used for a
waistband. Mark them in such a way that the distance
between the marks is 25 cm. then subject them to
accelerated aging (expose them to 149°C for 2 hours in a
circulated air oven). After aging, let the specimens cool down
to room temperature.

87.  Then, stretch the specimen 50% and keep them in that stretched
condition for 24 hours. Allow them to relax for 10 min. then, measure the
distance between the gauge marks and express that as a percentage of
the original distance between the gauge marks 25 cm. Use ‘a-‘ sign to
indicate shrinkage and ‘a+’ sign to indicate growth in the distance
between the gauge marks.The final results are expressed as the average
of the three specimens.
 Usually any growth over 7 or 8% is not acceptable.Any shrinkage is
unacceptable because it will result in a tight fit.
 This method accelerates the effects of launderings on a waistband.

88.  There is an ASTM test method for sewing threads.
This test method outlines the procedures for testing
the following properties of sewing threads:
 Diameter
 Length per thread holder
 Strength and elongation
 Shrinkage, single end
 Twist and twist balance
 Yarn number

89.  Knowledge of thread diameter is important because
diameter can affect sewing performance and seam
appearance. Sewing performance can be influenced because
thread is required to pass through restrictions, such as a
needle’s eye and tension disks. Seam appearance can be
adversely affected when the diameter of a thread is large
enough to displace fabric yarn and results in a puckered
seam. Sewing-thread diameter is also a consideration when
selecting sewing threads for embroidery, contrast stitching
or other decorative applications.

90.  The diameter of a thread is determined either with a
thickness gauge (preferred method) or optically (alternative
method).The procedure for measuring sewing-thread
diameter by a thickness gauge is as follows: draw the thread
from the side of the sewing-thread holder, taking care not to
disturb the twists
 Place four strands of the thread side by side on the anvil and
approximately midway between the sides of the pressure
foot of the thickness gauge. Measure the thickness to the
nearest .0025 cm under 240 gm/sq.cm pressures at 10 points
along the thread and calculate the average as the diameter
of the sewing thread.

91.  2. Length perThread Holder
 The length of sewing thread on a thread holder is measured in meters or
yards while being removed from the thread holder/ package.
 3. Strength and Elongation
 Strength and elongation of sewing threads are determined in the same
way as the strength and elongation of yarn, by a single-strand method
(ASTM D-2256).
 The loop length and elongation of a sewing thread are a measure of the
threads ability to contribute to seam performance.The loop strength of a
thread bears a direct relationship to stitch strength and hence to seam
strength. Loop elongation is an indication of the degree to which a seam,
under stress, can be stretched without a thread breaking. Besides loop
elongation, the ultimate elongation of a seam is dependent on the
material stitched, the stitch and seam type, and number of stitches per

92.  Shrinkage of sewing thread is important because shrinkage
can cause puckering of a seam, thus adversely affecting
seam appearance.
 A conditioned single end of thread is measured under a
prescribed tensioning force before and after exposure to
boiling water for ½ hour or dry heat 152° ± 3°C for 1 hour.
The change in length is expressed as a percentage of the
length before exposure.

93.  Determination of twist balance is important in predicting the
snarling tendency of thread during actual sewing operations.
In this method, about a meter of conditioned thread from a
holder is withdrawn in the same manner as that in which it is
delivered to the sewing machine and formed into a loop,
positioning the ends of the thread so that they are 10 cm
apart at the top of the loop.The twist balance is reported in
terms of the complete rotations that the loop makes.

94.  7 WEATTESTING
 Factors such as stress and strain in daily wear, abrasive
actions, effects of environmental elements, or effects of
repeated laundering and dry-cleaning that influence the
behaviour and performance of garments are so variable that
their cumulative or aggregate effect on an item cannot be
predicted with certainty by any of the test methods available
today.
 Therefore, actual use of (wear testing of) the item under
evaluation by several people will yield much more useful
data than all other testing combined.

95.  That is why even though wear testing is expensive and time-consuming,
some companies “wear test” their fabrics and garments before putting
them on the market.Wear testing may serve one or more of the
following purposes:
 It can help evaluate the performance of new or existing products
compared to the performance of known products.
 It would be an excellent tool to gauge consumer acceptance and product
development.
 It can help evaluate the suitability of existing products in different end
uses.
 It can help evaluate the interaction of wear, laundering and dry-cleaning,
daily stress-strain, environmental elements etc on a given fabric, dye,
finish and such.
 A very real advantage arising from wear testing is the ability to
determine what care instructions should be furnished the consumer,
thereby generating greater consumer satisfaction.

96.  CARE LABELLING OF
APPARELS

97.  To assist consumers in getting information about clothing care, the
FederalTrade Commission in 1971 issued the Care Labelling Rule.This
Rule requires manufacturers and importers to attach care instructions to
garment.A revised version of this Rule became effective on January 2,
1984.
 The revisions to the Rule were based on information gathered by the
Commission through public hearings and written comments. Data
revealed that while consumers found care labels to be useful, they also
believed labels were often incomplete, inaccurate, and inconsistent.
 The revised version of the Rule makes no major modifications.
 Rather, the changes clarify the Rule requirements and simplify the Rule
language.The Commission anticipates that these changes will make it
easier for industry to comply with the Rule. In turn, consumers will
benefit from clearer and more complete care instructions.