R. Villano - Prophylactic and therapeutic aspects against the plague in some States of Italy from XIV to the XVII century

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“T hat’s evil that everywhere terror
M aale that the heavens in his fury
He invented to punish the crimes of the earth ”
Diderot and D’Alembert
Encyclopedia of the Sciences, the Arts and Craft
Paris (1751)
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R. Villano - Prophylactic and therapeutic aspects against the plague in some States of Italy from XIV to the XVII century 5

R. Villano - Prophylactic and therapeutic aspects against the plague in some States of Italy from XIV to the XVII century6
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L’auteur
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© Copyright Raimondo Villano.
© Research, creation, cover by Raimondo Villano.
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Print: LP - Naples.
First edition: January 2014.
Translate: December 2013.
Finished writing: Ten February 2013.
Serialized.
This volume, with no serial number and signature, shall be deemed counterfeit.
Number of total pages: 72.
1^ cover: the plague of doctor in traditional clothing.
4^ cover: wax of the plague (Museum of the Specola, Florence) by Gaetano Giulio Zumbo, or
Zummo (Syracuse 1656 Paris, December 22, 1701), abbot and wax modeller Sicilian of the most
famous of seventheenth century.
CDD 945 VIL asp 2014 en.
LCC R131-687.

Index
Keiwords 11
Abstract 11
Chronology 15
Premise 17
Outline Global Epidemiological 17
Historical epidemiological Italian notes 19
Historical and literary notes of medical pathology 22
Historical notes sociological and demographic 23
1. Introduction 28
2. Conditions of physicians and apothecaries 30
3. Prophylaxis protocols 36
4. Substances for treatments of environments 44
5. Fragrant preparations 44
6. Therapies 45
7. Therapies for less well-off 48
8. Phlebotomy 48
9.iiiInsights on the treaty “Instruttione sopra la peste” by M. Michele
MieMercati
50
10. Insights on the treaty “Contro alla peste” by Marsilio Ficino 56
Notes 63
Apparatus fontium 65
Select bibliography 67
Synthetic profile of the author 68

« When is the memory to lose something, as happens when we forget and try to
remember, where ever we try, if not to the same memory? And it is there that, if
by chance you come to a different thing, reject it, until it happens that we seek.
And when it happens, we say: "Is this," neither would say so without recognizing
it, nor would recognize without a reminder. So, and we were really forgotten. Or
maybe there was no fall in full by the mind and we, with the part that we kept, we
went in search of the other party as if the memory, feeling not develop all at once
what he used to remember together, and limp, so to speak, with a stump of habit,
call upon the return of the missing part and limp, so to speak, with a stump of
habit, call upon the return of the missing part? ».
St. Augustine

Paulus Fürst - The doctor of the plague
(etching, 1656)

Keywords
Plague - Italy - Middle Ages.
Abstract
Starting from a historical chronology, pathological, epidemiological,
demographic, sociological and literary plague, we describe the conditions
and environment of physicians and apothecaries, we examine the protocols of
prophylaxis and make a reconnaissance of the main drugs used for prevention
and treatment , coming to examine in detail some of the most important works
in this subject and date (XVII century) compared to the epidemic periods
considered, the pre-eminent precepts clinical treatment protocols, dietary
prescriptions, the composition of medicines and the most important processes
for their preparation, setting the stage for various lines of comparative
analysis.

“That’s evil that everywhere terror
Maale that the heavens in his fury
He invented to punish the crimes of the earth”
Diderot et D’Alembert
Encyclopedia of the Sciences, the Arts and Crafts
Paris (1751)

Chronology
From the twelfth century in Europe there is an epidemic of plague more or
less severe on average every 10-15 years; 1333: Asian contagion spreads to
India and affects the Crimea, the Black Sea and other areas of Mesopotamia,
Arabia, Egypt; 1346-53: pandemic in the Maghreb and Europe to Scandinavia,
with peaks in the Mediterranean countries; October 12 1347: twelve Genoese
galleys coming from Caffa in the Crimea, which was besieged for three years
by the Tartars, arrive in Messina on board with sailors dead or dying infected
died of the plague as projectiles thrown over the walls of the city; 1348: with
severe pandemic spread in the Netherlands, England, Germany, Poland and
Russia; after 1348 : the plague is still endemic in Italy; 1353 in extinction on
the shores of the Black Sea, point of origin. After 1350 in Europe remains
endemic, reappearing periodically at intervals of about ten years in the
individual regions. In the second half of the fourteenth century: the plague
occurs 5 times in Italy in epidemic form. Twenty years of the fifteenth
century: the plague occurs 2 times in Italy in epidemic form. Seventy years
of the fifteenth century: the plague occurs 2 times in Italy in epidemic form.
1537: ceases cyclical epidemic of the plague; 1630: outbreak in northern Italy,
with a peak at Milan; seventeenth century: plague occurs 2 times in Italy as
an epidemic; 1647: the pandemic in the Maghreb and Europe; 1649: pandemic
Naples; 1656: pandemic in Rome; Half eighteenth century: the plague left
the European continent.

ToggenburgBible,RepresentationofthePlague(1411).

Premise
The oldest known outbreak of plague in history (ca. 1490 BC, the year of the
world 2513, or 1600 BC according to others) could be the biblical episode in
which “the Lord said to Moses and Aaron, Pharaoh, and I will smite all the
'Egypt with the plague of pestilence(1)
” and the terrible epidemic invades the
country. Shortly after the epidemic is described by Ovid(2)
, which reached
Greece from Egypt and Ethiopia. The first plague of Italy, narrated by
Dionysius, dates from the year 2778 of the world. “This disease is born in the
year 541 in Ethiopia, and, according to others, in Egypt, a year after moving
to Constantinople, then to Italy, in Spains and Gauls and even in England, he
touched almost all the then known world, and repeatedly raged for over fifty
years, not forgiving anyone, by slaughter of men wherever they were(3)
”. In
Constantinople in acute epidemic kills over ten thousand people for day.
Outline Global Epidemiological
In 1333 in Asia, spreading to India but also affects other areas of the Crimea
and the Black Sea on one side and Mesopotamia, Arabia and Egypt on the
other hand; arrived in Italy in 1347; spreads in Holland, England, Germany,
Poland and Russia to become extinct in 1353 on the shores of the Black Sea,
point of origin, probably for the survivors of 20 years before now immunized.
There are a disaster socio-economic and demographic crisis. In 1647 “a vessel
full of leather and other skins, from Algiers brought the plague in Valencia”:

PlagueofAzoth(oiloncanvas,1630).

the disease develops into the city from the shoemakers and in 4 months there
are about 20,000 deaths of about 40,000 inhabitants(4)
. The black death
reaches unstoppable other cities invading in a few months the whole of Spain,
including the islands of Majorca and Minorca; in 1649 the plague has spread
throughout Provence and furiously produced in Marseille a massacre among
the most severe in history.
Historical epidemiological Italian notes
Not to mention leprosy, a disease known since ancient times and most of
which is already talk in the Bible, the pathologies that most frequently cause
deaths are: malaria, your shingles, variola, typhus, scurvy, and especially
plague bubonic. It should be clarified, however, that the word pestilence to
any kind of plague epidemic disease diffusible quickly, even for reasons other
than infection itself (poisoning , food shortages...). To explain these die-offs
the medieval epidemiology uses natural and supernatural interpretations: the
most widespread opinion is the presence in the air of harmful vapors
containing a pestilent poison, another hypothesis is that gigantic fires in the
East that produce poisonous fumes, or the disease coming from the bowels of
the earth or the sky due to malignant astral conjunctions. Then there are those
who think the poisoning of wells by Jews and lepers, so as unleashing real
persecution, especially in France (the belief that remains rooted in history
giving rise to rumors on the ‘spreaders’ in successive epidemics). The
contagion of 1348 is violent in Italy but spread throughout Europe rampage

for three years, followed by a ten-year cyclicity endemic regional with
massive damage and loss of at least a quarter of the population(5)
. In particular,
after the severe pandemic of 1348 the plague is still endemic in Italy,
occurring in epidemic form five times in the second half of the fourteenth
century, twice in the twenties and two in the seventies of the fifteenth century,
twice in the sixteenth century and, finally, twice in the seventeenth century.
The ships that arrive in Messina have their holds full of Russian grain they eat
hundreds of mouses blacks contaminators whose fur is ideal microclimate for
millions of fleas Indian pestiferous of type Xenopsylla cheopis. The mouses
blacks, especially the dying, go outside to look for light and their fleas take
root in humans that is suitable habitat for clothes, dirt(6)
and body heat. Rats
and fleas are also physiologically integrated to the metabolism of the city
hygienically precarious between anabolism of the granaries and catabolism of
the sewers, open drains and stagnant excremental sewage in the streets. The
epidemic of 1630 devastated northern Italy, especially Milan. From time
immemorial the plague is considered holy terror, so it is exorcised by
mediation of Saints, such as San Rocco, or Madonna: the epidemic, therefore,
quickly spreads by contagion as a factor having also the numerous
propitiatroy functions in places of worship or public crowded with people.
“The plague that the court of health had feared he could enter with the
German gangs in Milan, there really was (...). In late March , they began ,
first in eastern Gate , then in every neighborhood of the city, take frequent
buboes; deaths, with accidents strange of spasms, palpitations, lethargy,

delirium, with the fatal bruises and swellings; mostly dead fast, violent, often
sudden, without any prior indication of illness. (...) Since that day, the fury of
the contagion went always growing: in a short time, there was almost no
house untouched, in a short time the lazaret (...) increased from two thousand
to twelve thousand; later, according to almost everyone came up to sixteen.
On July 4 , as I find in another letter to the Governor of the Conservatories of
Health, the daily mortality exceeded five hundred. Later, at the peak, arrived,
according to the most common calculation , a thousand two hundred, fifteen
hundred; and more than three thousand five, if we are believe to Tadino(7)
”. In
1649 from the port of Marseille, thanks to its natural vectors (fleas of mouses)
a epidemic arrives in Sardinia, where the viceroy of Naples, Juan Alfonso
Enríquez de Cabrera order exceptional security measures in ports and roads.
From the island the plague arrived in Naples, already in serious conditions of
hygiene and health, although it is active the port of Mandracchio, designed to
operate in a capillary customs controls on goods in transit , “during the night
the sailors seek pleasure to Lavinaio on pallets of women exchanging hugs
and paying fleas naturally with infected goods. Disembark from the holds full
of grain big mouses that find refuge in the sewers and new food in the trash...
(8)
”. On June 9, 1656 a Neapolitan mariner at an guest-house in Trastevere
falls ill and, was admitted to the hospital St. John, dies. Five days after the
landlady and her daughter died with signs of plague and so the next day the
landlord. Pope Alexander VII, without waiting the official medical response,
order the litanies in the churches and cancel the procession of Corpus Domini

in order to avoid contagion. In addition, he makes put gates at the crossing
points of the Lungara and squares of Trastevere, guarded by armed guards
with orders to shoot on sight to those who try to enter or exit. On June 18,
with a another dead this time for declared cause of plague, have closed the
doors of the Ghetto and are reserving the transit only to 14 Jews for
supplies(9)
.
Historical and literary notes of medical pathology notes
The plague is manifested in the form that is transmitted by contact infecting
the blood and with the symptoms of buboes and black stains and in the most
violent form that is transmitted by air attacking the respiratory system.
Patients with bubonic plague have the full body with black stains and
swellings black exuding blood and pus in the groin and under the armpits or a
very high fever with pulmonary hemorrhage that kills even in a single day(10)
.
“At first sprouted in both males and females some bulges (...) most certain
indication of future death (...) almost all within three days of the appearance
of these signs, some sooner and some less, and no more no fever or other
illness died(11)
”. An anonymous chronicler of Orvieto ranks among the causes
of death, even the ‘consternation of the people’: a very violent mental trauma
caused by the fear of the plague(12)
. Of this scourge of the black plague of
1348 also tells Boccaccio in the Decameron while that of 1630 in Milan is
described by Manzoni in the book Promessi sposi. The plague is considered
predominantly “poisonous vapor mixed with air, the enemy of the spirit vital:

enemy no to quality, but to specific property(13)
”. At the dawn of the
seventeenth century, then, the definition of plague are still various opinions of
the ‘enlightened’ insiders. It shows approximately a dissertation about(14)
:
“The same Hippocrates called Wrath of the Gods, and Galen protest, that to
escape from that, he consecrated himself as Voting to Asclepius the god of
medicine believed then; and so it is that Disease is called by all the Divine
Evil, and the test Diemerbroeck; second, for severity of its effects; thirdly for
the violence of the Poison, and finally for the ease of propagation, which can
not recognize other cause beyond the bully, namely the Divine. But to give
notice in accordance with my purpose, which is used for definition of the
Plague, and omitted for brevity as Galen says in the book to Pison . Chap. 14 .
p. m. 168., which compares to a Beast that, being able to attack all, and is
confirmed by Zacuto tom. I, lib. 2, Hist. med. hist. 89, dub. 52, p. m. 338., as
well as omitted definitions of Mercurial, Quercetano, Sylvio, and More, which
explains imperfectly authorized by the universal consent of the Ancients, and
Moderns, say, meanwhile, that the Plague is a bad thing, most terrible of all
evil, since it has itself four main quality, all fatal, which is divided into all
other evils, constantly infected, so it is not surprising that Lindelio Scotus in
the Book of feb. p. 204 , calls it evil that multiplies all evil ...”.
Historical notes sociological and demographic
Italy, 1348: occur a disaster social and economic and a demographic crisis;
out of a total of 11 million people, 60,000 people die in Naples, 40,000 in

Expansion of the plague in Europe and North Africa
(1346-53)

Genoa, Venice 100,000, 96,000 in Florence and 70,000 in Siena: consider
these figures and deaths in all other cities, the overall peninsula lost about half
of the total population. Rest of Europe: in three years (1347-50) out of a
population of about 100 million units, an estimated 30 million to 35 million
victims of the epidemic: the United Kingdom, for example, the threshold of
the black death has 3,700,000 inhabitants while in 1377 drops to 2,200,000(15)
,
in London the mortality rate is approximately 300 victims per day(16)
. The
demographic contraction, first slowly and then very fast, is stable for nearly
two centuries, roughly around the lowest level reached. With demographic
drop you a significant decrease in the average length of life(17)
: of 35 or 40
years would be achieved before the great plague you come back at 25 of the
‘dark ages’ (in England seems from 34 in about 1300 to 17 in the period of the
plague to go up to 32 in the early fifteenth century). This change of social
structure and the effects of the crisis extend beyond the fourteenth century.
And “since only a minority arrived at mature age, few adults had the burden
of maintaining many and adolescents, and the society was holding on the
experience of a few(18)
”. The fear and uncertainty of the future comes to
determining a barbarism of manners and restraint gives way to extreme
behavior: surpasses the selfishness in place of respect and compassion, avoids
contact with other people, growing unrest and resentment among
municipalities immune and infected. With regard to the risk of importation of
the disease from one municipality to another, in particular, a physician of

Padua, where the disease is brought from Venice, opens its Regimen against
the plague the eloquent prayer: “O thou true guidance, you that determines
everything in this world! May you that live forever to save the inhabitants of
Padua and as their father does that no epidemic affects them”. Rampant, also,
aggression and hysteria of those who flagellates or go to hunting for Jews as
scapegoats (to the point that even intervene to Pope Clement VI in 1349 with
two Bubbles of 4 July and 26 September condemning anti-Jewish persecutions
under pain of excommunication). During the centuries the popular anger often
leads to ferocity in murderous hunting the alleged perpetrators, the spreaders:
foreign, different, who speak another language, dressed differently, with
different attitudes. At the beginning of 1348 begins to circulate the accusation
that Jews poison wells and sources and in Savoy some of them under
investigated and tortured of course admit that offense and their confession
spreads quickly throughout Europe. The Pope, on his part, invites the clergy to
put the Jews under his protection; Clement VI prohibits killing them without
trial and to plunder the houses. The Papal Bulls, however, have effect only in
Avignon, while elsewhere contribute little to save Jews. Even Queen Joanna I
of Naples in 1348, is forced to reduce the taxes of the Jews in his possessions
Provencal for compensate the losses suffered due to looting. In Naples in
1656 “(...) fell innocent victims of a thousand sacrilegious hands not only with
veins cut, but with inhuman cruelty bloody havoc, made in pieces and
scattered outside the city thrown to the dogs. (...) A woman in dress foreigner
who had a baby strapped to her chest, for you do not know the difference with

L. Pogliaghi - Plague in Florence (engraving,1348)
(in “History of the Renaissance” by F. Bertnini)

the seller, because tossed the breast in the common ground some cherries,
believing with these had poured poison, is dragged with the child and made
into pieces, thrown from the bridge of the Magdalene. (...) The popular anger
is against the government guilty of wanting to exterminate the people down
even when the disease has not arrived at the top.
There are rumors of foreign poisoners who spread dust contaminants on food
and even in the holy waters and begins the hunt for the stranger. The inability
of the Deputation of Health and regents to combat the plague feeds and
formalizes the rumor, and are condemned to the wheel alleged spreaders
caught in the act(19)
”.
In 1630 the flagellum black of plague abbot on Italy in particular, especially
in North Milan, as also described by Alessandro Manzoni’s Promessi Sposi
that, citing Tadino, says that the population of Milan for the plague fell from
250,000 to about 64,000 inhabitants(20)
, in 1656 the victims in Naples would
be around 450 thousand(21)
and 14,473 in Rome.
1. Introduction
The words plague and contagion inspire terror because it can be connected
directly to death even at a young age: the plague going around the city with
gaping like a weasel. It is believed, also , that the disease is a kind of divine
chastisement to punish the corruption of morals(22)
, the same Pope Clement
VI specifically mentions the divine wrath that afflicts of the plague the
Christians. The black death is considered the livid mark of the fourth seal

apocalyptic(23)
: the apocalypse itself, then, is exorcised by the aforementioned
popular invocation “a fame, peste, bello, libera nos, Domine” (“by famine,
plague, beautiful, deliver us, God”) which, in total crisis of medicine, entrusts
exclusively to God the full protection from evil. However, the reaction of the
people facing the disease is paradoxically twofold: some get depressed, pray
repenting of sins in view of the imminent end of the human race and live a life
more sober and God-fearing, avoid contact with other people to escape
disease; however, “other than the contrary opinion, affirmed drink a lot and
enjoy and sing and amuse and satisfy the appetite and what happened laugh
and mock the medicine: and so as they said they did, day and night going from
tavern in tavern , drinking without so and measure(24)
”.
The costumes do not change, finally, for the survivors, that “... being in a few,
and abundant for inheritance and succession of earthly goods, forgetting the
past, you gave the most indecent and dishonest life that were not before, idle
and dissolute gluttony, banquets, taverns and delicate with delights food,
games, unbridled lust, finding strange clothing and dishonest ways, changing
all of them to new forms furnishings(25)
”. The religious, at times, rather than
bring extreme comfort to the dying, for fear of infection deserting the task
generating the discomfort of a transition without confession and extreme
unction: “many confessed when they were still in good health. Day and night
remained exposed on the altars the consecrated host and the oil of the sick.
No priest wanted to take the sacrament except those that were intended to
reward some. And almost all of the mendicant friars and priests of Trent have

died(26)
”. In 1656 Pope Alexander VII index a Jubilee to invoke the grace of
God. Bloom also numerous events pagan or superstitious behaviors, for
example: carrying on bottles of liquid saints, amulets, holy cards and various
devotions. The sick are abandoned in the homes from come cries for help that
remain unanswered; the family crying are held at a distance: “ ... many died
alone, and many died of hunger, because as someone got sick in bed, family
astonished they told him: < I'm going to call the doctor > and closed the door
from the street, and never returned . He abandoned by people, without food
and feverish died. Many begged the family not to abandon them, when they
came in the evening. And when the patient fell asleep, they went away, and did
not return. If for her misfortune was the night comforted food in the morning
alive and strong look out the window, (...) as well as any passed, and he heard
a voice was thin, it was not the rescue. Because no one, or just wanted to get
into the house, where she was a patient(27)
”.
2. Conditions of physicians and apothecaries
Coinciding with the plague of 1348 and the subsequent waves of epidemic
occurs corporations Art of Apothecaries development, born in genteel age,
also grows the role of local spices: various cities, in fact, during the epidemics
are divided into districts entrusted commissioners, doctors, surgeons and
apothecaries. They are active in several Member bodies. In Venice, for
example, one of the authorities in charge of monitoring the pharmacy from
1348, which was to become in time one of the most admired and famous

European civil courts, is the Office of the Sages of Health, composed of three
noble men , with the task principal to ensure the protection of public health at
the end of the epidemic, however, the office is canceled and then, tentatively
restarted at each new outbreak . In this judiciary alongside : the chief
physician for certain skills, the Superintendents of Health in Terra Firma,
special officials sent in cases of medical emergency, the Superintendents to
Pharmacies. Since 1423 , however , at the highest levels often overlap the
various measures approved by the Senate and Full Board, making it often
difficult and confusing a unified vision of health protection, with the
aggravating circumstance of judicial co- operation of other lower courts: the
Lords of Night, operators of the mortality register of the epidemic of 1423,
1440 and 1450, the Procurators of San Marco of citra, administrators budgets
and bequests for the benefit of the two Lazarets the city's public, and the
Magistrate to Sal, a provider of financial means for the ordinary course of
Lazarets. The epidemics of 1478 and 1485 are entrusted to the care of
Superintendents to Sal, inadequate performance, are replaced by the Senate in
the same year with the above Healthcare Providers. The latter, made
immediately dependent judiciary branch offices all existing health care in the
state, have extensive supervisory tasks(28)
, including that on health arts,
including supervision and coordination in the production of medicines. Later
they established the Above Superintendents of Health, who since 1554 have
criminal jurisdiction in the health sector , expanded faculty from 1556 until
the imposition of the death penalty and, as a result, further enhanced by the

JulesElieDelaunay-ThePlagueinRome:theAngelofDeath(nineteenthcentury).

establishment of the Superintendent -General against the Plague, supervisor of
health action against epidemics inside and outside the Republic of Venice. For
doctors and apothecaries, however, the epidemics constitute a real defeat the
insipience and misunderstanding results a total helplessness! Guy de
Chauliac writes that the black plague is “not very convenient for doctors and
such to make them ashamed, because dare not visit for fear of contagion and
when they visit did little or nothing and almost all patients die”. For this
failure informs also Boccaccio that concludes his description of the plague in
the Decameron saying: “How many valiant men, how many beautiful women,
many young graceful, than others, but Galen, Hippocrates or Asclepius had
judged very healthy, ate in the morning with faily, comrades and friends, and
then the next night they dined in the other world with their dead!”. The
majority of physicians and apothecaries, in fact, often in the face of plague
refers to the Galenic precept “cito, longe fugeas et tarde redeas” (quickly runs
away and come back later you can), leaving the field open to would-be
curators improvised touting ineffective remedies sold for their weight in gold.
Even the personal physician of Pope Clement VI, Guy de Chauliac,
attempted from the escape, shared by several bishops, admits: “For fear of
dishonor I dared not flee. Continually tormented by fear, I tried to protect
myself as best ...”. By another doctor of Avignon close to the Pope, Chalin de
Vinario, we understand clearly the idea prevalent among doctors and health
professionals in general: “we are the next of ourselves. None of us are blinded
by such a folly to devote more of the salvation of others as their own,

especially as the disease is so rapid and contagious”. In authoritative texts,
then, referring to the recommendations of Avicenna, Tommaso del Garbo
recommend “before the primary, and sure remedy is to escape from the place
where the plague, and go to the place where the air is healthy, and not to flee
in place, which is close to the place where the highest mortality. (...)You can
escape the city in the countryside(29)
”. In Rome in 1656, it promulgated an
edict forbidding, under penalty of death and confiscation of property, to
physicians, surgeons and surgeons to move away from the Urbe . Despite
many ‘precautions’, prophylactic and therapeutic protocols , in 1630 the
devastation of the disease is not curbed and strikes primarily on the most
vulnerable: on doctors to whom, for collective fear of not having more
available, in many cases it is advisable to live in the homes of the peripheral
areas of the country; on decimated apothecaries, whose ‘workshops’ are
empty of all good generating widespread inability of supplies of medicines. At
the end of the epidemic cycle the apothecaries are almost extinct in many
places, while some are on the verge of bankruptcy for credit supplied to the
lazarets and receiving, then, many years later, in some cases not isolated even
after more than a decade. After the plague, finally, because of the carnage of
Apothecaries operated by the disease, the leaders of the College of Milan
allowed to register external candidates to the families of the Masters
Apothecaries, but by creating a sub-category of operators authorized to sell
and not only to compose drugs. During this century increase professional
aggregations; in many cases begin to be imposed on the category of

Sacramentofcommuniontoasickperson.

apothecaries Statutes that require inspections of the College of Physicians,
thus losing part of autonomy.
3. Prophylaxis protocols
Because therapies often do not show any effectiveness, the doctors believe
“the preservative part very noblest and most necessary of healing(30)
”. At the
beginning of the seventeenth century in France the doctors who visit the sick
of the plague begin to wear a cloak of oil-cloth, linen cloth coated with paste
wax mixed with aromatic substances, baleful clothing that becomes very
popular especially in Italy considering able to prevent the atoms of the
poisonous miasma ‘attach themselves’ to its surface smooth and slippery.
The special medical kit, in addition to the apron waxed black morocco of
Levant to the foot ( cloth for his smell and his hair is best suited to resist the
poison of pestilential), generally has the same shoes to the Polish Moroccan
Levant, leather breeches tied to boots and a leather jacket as well; finally,
there are gloves and hat, even in Moroccan, stick and completing a sort of
bird's beak on the nose (pierced by only two holes, one on each side, but
sufficient for respiration and with the openings necessary to view protected to
avoid any danger, by two small crystals)(31)
containing the pomum ambrae,
sponge or gauze soaked in the mixture of substances believed to be protective,
inhaling all the time; the doctor, also, when you visit the sick is held at a
distance. For the purification of air from the pestilential diseases is used to
calefaction: large fires that are thrown ointments, resins and herbs to purify

the air by the stench which is believed to spread evil as it is opposed to the
stench coming from the bodies abandoned in putrefaction. It is then
introduced the use of applications to the nostrils of odorous substances to
purify the air inhaled directly. More prophylaxis precepts recommend:
ventilation of rooms, use of good wine and healthy foods, abstaining from
coitus during sexual intercourse, personal ablutions with vinegar and rose
water. Who can swallow gemstones for an alleged miraculous power or
preventive medicines: various texts recommend antimony compounds with
Among the preventive remedies against the plague of Hortus sanitatis (1517 )
shows the “eat in the morning out of bed with a walnut and a fig tree”; in
many herbaria for prevention of the disease is recommended to wash the
floors with vinegar and wipe with garlic and rose water. The belief in the
therapeutic properties of the incense, together with the passion for cosmetics
‘amber and musk’ will continue throughout Europe until at least mid-
eighteenth century. Moreover, the ‘pleasure of smell’, as well as aspect of the
philosophy of sensism , is a response of the upper classes to the miasma of the
city and poor personal hygiene. It should not be silent, then, that in the
sixteenth-eighteenth centuries, believing plague and syphilis originated by
smells, is extremely widespread fear of water based on the theory ‘scientific’
of the porous body: it is argued that the disease passes through the pores and,
therefore, it is necessary to preserve the body waterproof and bathing suit with
a thousand precautions and only in very rare cases, even on medical
prescription(32)
( conception disappeared only in the nineteenth century, with

the discovery of microbes). In Naples, as often in other cities, are boarded up
and marked the houses where there is a death and life partners are
imprisoned in them while foods are sent to them ‘through the basket from the
windows, at the expense of the government’. You will burn clothing and
objects of plague victims while the priests are forbidden to bury the plague
victims in the churches. In Naples in 1649 you will burn even stocks of cod
and salted fish, which are considered carriers of the disease, while walking in
the streets with large scallops or smoking torches of burning pitch to drive
away moods lethal. Conversing at a distance. In times of contagion of the
plague taking restrictive measures aimed at protecting communities still free.
One of the most challenging implemented by all States to protect themselves
from the plague is the banning of a city where you suspect the existence of an
outbreak of infection. The ban is closely related to another measure of
protection: the establishment of sanitary cordons on land or at sea to avoid
contagion. The ban should be considered as the most frequently used to try to
achieve a prevention of epidemic diseases. It involves the interruption of
every business relationship and communication with the town considered a
potential source of infection. The countries of the Ottoman Empire and Africa
are often banned because they were considered dangerous. To spread the
message of risk and the need to stop travel to places or countries, civil
authorities or medical use people called ‘preachers’ with the task of spreading
this message among the sparse population in the area and, for the most part,
illiterate. The order submitted by the auctioneer is called Bando, Edict ,

Decree or Ordinance. The arrivals of people, goods and animals are viewed
with frightened eyes and everyone is trying to protect yourself from these
possible vehicles of infection. One of prevention measures oldest, the most
widespread and best documented, is the establishment of the Faith of Health,
certificate which must arm who embarks on a journey to earth and that
‘authentic’, certifying the state of health of which enjoyed by the country of
origin of the traveler and therefore, presumably, the traveler himself. The
Faith of Health, real health passport, is considered document particularly
important for the authorities, for fear of fraud, followed closely by the press to
delivery to the compiler. While similar document that accompanies a boat, the
Patent of Health, it is issued by a authority of port (a Deputation Health with
great powers), the Faith of Health has issued also in small towns. While the
Patent of Health are often beautiful prints with known stamps of health, the
Faith are often small and simple handwritten sheets of a municipal employee.
The Faith must retain the physical features of the person to whom they are
issued and any relevant information for secure identification. The Patents of
Health are carefully controlled by officials or members or medical deputy to
health check. If the vessels come from ports suspected, if while browsing the
boat is attacked by pirates, the crew, passengers and cargo are quarantined.
In Venice, to physically isolate those affected by the disease, the Republic
establishing on two islands Lazarets (Venetian dialect corruption of St. Mary
of Nazareth: is the first example in the world of isolation hospital , where once
cured lepers.

LucaGiordano-ThePlague(oiloncanvas,1656).

The Lazarets are divided into old (oldest to institution) and new(33)
.
These enclosed areas at seaports are located in various cities of Italy and in
their ships, sailors and their goods are subject to quarantine periods in times
of suspected plague. In addition to quarantine in lazarets, in times of
epidemics people can be seized at home, especially if the family that lives in
that place had a death.
In addition to quarantine in lazarets, in times of epidemics people can be
subject to seizure at home, especially if the family that lives in that place had a
death. In Rome in June 1656 are structured five lazarets: in Tiber Island (with
its two lanes wide side deck access and entry permitted only with boats from
the Tiber River); in San Pancrazio; in Casal Pius V, for convalescents from
the Tiber Island; in Giulia street for “corroboration of health after his
recovery”; to the monastery of Saint Eustace, for the quarantine of suspected
plague victims. The plague victims are “ brought to the military hospital in a
coffin covered by slaves , that men sentenced to jail , who are dressed in a
tunic porter green canvas tarp with gloves at the hands of Moroccan black”.
The end of the plague is officially announced on 8 September by Pope(34)
. The
mail (letters, manuscripts, telegrams, newspapers), already for centuries
considered dangerous vehicle of infection considering the paper is able to
receive, store and transmit the infection, is subject to extensive and rigorous
disinfection as a measure of prevention of infection.
Letters can be disinfected externally or internally and externally. Along the
consular roads, or at least along the route of the mail flows are disinfection

stations where workers with gloves and aprons oilcloth take pliers with long
letters by placing them on tables, opening, and then disinfecting them to
collect and burn off any remaining pieces. The disinfection is different for
areas and eras. For centuries the purifying virtues attributed to the fire calmed
those in charge of disinfection of the letters.
We use aromatic woods, aromatic substances or scrub (unfortunately the
paper burns easily so great care is needed in the steps of the letters on the
flame): splits along the length of the ends of a rod in the gap and pulls the
sheet to pass the flame.
The immersion in vinegar is considered very secure system of disinfection:
the letters are opened, sprinkled with vinegar, then dry (even this system has
drawbacks as not all inks are resistant to vinegar and some manuscripts
become unreadable: irreparable harm when these are business letters or bank
documents, in an attempt to avoid at least some of the disadvantages, traders
shorten the maximum dive time). In other cases, it spreads quicklime on the
cards or sheets are passed to the oven.
The coins, then are often thoroughly washed with vinegar. In Naples in 1649,
also, in the first Pragmatic Health of promulgated by Viceroy emerge
initial measures taken against a deep urban and social decay: “Having known
the damage it can make to the health of this City the multitude of dogs and
pigs, walking through the city, considering that in the current weakness may
be great cause as aforesaid dogs creep into infected houses, and then they go
in the other houses of the healthy. Therefore, with this announcement ... It is

L. Pogliaghi - Plague in Florence (engraving,1348)
(in “History of the Renaissance” by F. Bertnini)

ordered that all the hosts of these pigs, even though they were of the Abbey of
St. Anthony, and the owners of the dogs, that within twenty four hours of the
publication of this Notice must withdraw them in their own homes, (...) The
Deputies of health”.
4. Substances for treatments of environments
Among the most commonly used substances for calefaction are: pine resin
burned on larch wood, sulfur, malodorous materials (bovine dung, horns,
nails, glands, and animal hair), able to overpower the stench of miasma. In
many herbaria to prevent the disease we recommend washing the floors with
vinegar and rub with garlic and rose water. The vinegar with lime is also used
to treat the walls.
The following are an indication, some of the provisions enacted in Naples:
“Item order that the houses of the dead, sick, or convalescent, denounced,
must be cleaned in the following way: in each room burns a quarter of a roll
of sulfur in windows closed for half an 'hour, and then turns off in container
filled with vinegar, lime required, even doors and windows shut, and paint it
white twice the room. This is for the poor at the expense of the public(35)
”.
5. Fragrant preparations
The pomum ambrae, by doctor insistently sniffed, is a sponge or gauze
soaked in vinegar mixture in which they are dissolved powder of cloves,
cinnamon and other spices. Moreover, they are widely used buccheri (reddish
fragrant land of exotic countries and the Americas, fashion in the seventeenth

century) to make tablets and fragrances from the alleged beneficial fragrances.
It is widespread, in fact, the belief in the therapeutic properties of aphrodisiac
scents, so there is the habit of emitting species in the meeting places of
habitation and salvific and perfective arguing the virtues of medicines not
only fragrant but even food fragrant. Other products: as a result raging
between the rich fashion: chocolate jasmine, amber and musk-laden sorbets,
‘fertilized waters’.
6. Therapies
Among the therapies are: the inevitable theriac; ‘clutches of the extreme
parts’ with vinegar or rose water, vernaccia, malvasia, purifying the corrupted
humours based purges and bloodletting; local superfluity eliminators based of
cauteries ‘present’ (red-hot iron) and of cauteries ‘potential’ (vitriol,
quicklime); Armenian bole; some lands sealed; ersicaria herbs, by drying
properties moods and reducing fevers; saffron, for pale skin; deer horn
powder or filings, antitoxic and comforting; oil of scorpions, smeared on
buboes; sapphire and emerald, purifiers and moderators of internal heat and
sweat and purification of the corruption of the body and the sins of the soul.
To sick, also, are administered orally electuaries of rhubarb, cassia herbs, red
corals, minced pearls, cinnamon and chamomile flowers.
Among the remedies and cures for the plague reported in the Hortus sanitatis
(1517) include the practice of grease wrists and nostrils with oil barrel and
“take a few drops a day in water and blessed thistle herb scabiosa” to delay

putrefaction and corruption of blood and humors in diseased; taken against
pestilential fevers dried or fresh leaves or juice elixir seeds of Ersicaria herbs,
which cool the mood until the last level. Other remedies and cures against the
plague are in the discussion ‘De bubone pestilentiae’ (XVI century) by the
illustrious Gabriel Falloppio: diet, isolation of infected persons; cruet of
aromas of garlic, vinegar, camphor, rosemary, wormwood, oil of scorpions
under the nostrils; packages of antiseptic odoriferous plants hanging on the
heart; medicinal wine with betony herb, wormwood, etc.; garlic.
Around the middle of the sixteenth century is written by Hermani Grüße
the Code Herbarium of ‘diagram of flavors’ that are listed by month aromas
and flavors of herbs that are constituents of medicines for the treatment of
plague. In this great tragic theater of the plague, in addition, the cumbersome
and evanescent medicine offers another miserable show: come to be packaged
powders against the plague composed even with more than 150 simple,
especially based theriac and ‘cordial’.
It is customary to use, both as a preventive and therapeutic, smoking pipe of
tobacco, indeed in some cases it is also believed that tobacco vendors are
immune from the pestilential disease(36)
: “(... ) one day, having gone to visit a
(...) hit by the plague, ( ... ), I was suffocated by the horrible smell that was
around, I was struck by contagion. I made a very short visit and left with
dizziness, nausea and anxiety, and narrowing of the heart that convinced me
to be attacked by the pestilent poison. Then, forgetting all my efforts (there
were ten in the morning), I locked myself in the house, where I smoked six or

HallHotelDieu-Paris,engravingwood(sixteenthcentury).

seven excellent tobacco’s pipe. Immediately all the symptoms disappeared and
I was hit so well that I did not hear any more noise and I was able to continue
my visits, after swallowing, before leaving the house, a drama of good
theriac... these pipes and tobacco, as I said, I have always been of great
benefit all the times I’ve been attacked by the pestilential poison. Although
these good results have not been achieved by all, the effects of this plant have
benefited many soldiers, as confirmed repeatedly by their commanders. And
you can confirm something more; because it is said that in London, during a
great plague, the houses of those who sold tobacco were not affected(37)
”.
7. Therapies for less well-off
Among the therapies for underserved appear, in place of the theriac, the lemon
seeds or the crust of toasted bread soaked in vinegar with rue and onion. To
the patients, in addition, are administered by mouth electuaries based rhubarb,
cassia herb, red corals, pearls minced, cinnamon and chamomile flowers while
for prevention various texts recommend medicaments based on antimony with
sugar rosé wine or water.
8. Phlebotomy
Phlebotomy is practiced with technique ‘derivative’ (in pathological area to
reduce the mass) or technique ‘revulsive’ (the opposite side to deviate from
the outbreak the moods corrupt); some apothecaries, however, performed with
leeches even applications to anus of plague victims.

Paris:thelavishhospitalS.Louis,incision(theseventeenthcentury).

9. Insights on the treaty “Instruttione sopra la peste” by M. Michele
Mercati
First, for prevention is mentioned Avicenna that “advises that one extracts the
superfluous moisture from the body superfluous” with phlebotomy “or with
drugs (the evacuation, which is done with the exercise, abstinence, occult
evaporation, clutches, and bathrooms). (...) In the bodies, therefore, that have
blood superfluous, does the phlebotomy, to do, how he wants a modern
doctor, through the common vein of the right-hand man, but not in large
quantities, so that, (in the case of plague supervening) the virtue is not found
too weak. And if for some reason you do not make the phlebotomy, sticking
bloodsuckers on the buttocks, & up to above the hemorrhoid, or remove the
flesh from the buttocks, and extract blood with small cups(38)
. But these
operations require preparation, so “before extracting blood gets an clyster in
previous evening with common herbs, adding borage, buglotta, melissa,
sorrel, bettonica, and rue capraria, with three ounces of rose honey, of which
one of a red sugar, three egg yolks, & a little salt. Everything you do, when
there is suspicion of plague, as soon as possible. Some want that in every
moon is extracted a little blood, which is not the blames on those who have
large amounts, and it usually draw(39)
”. Without phlebotomy, if other humors
abound, reduce mixing in the medicaments ‘things cordial’. Starting on the
third day, if the choler abounds, we use ‘medicines blessed’ to reduce it
according to this prescription: Manna elected ,Trifera persica, Rhubarb
elected; to dissolve with a decoction of: Marguerites, Hyacinths and
Emeralds; Barbe of: Valerian, Bugloss, Borage and Angelica; Been red and

white, raw Silk. You have to crush everything all and close in a cloth tied and
placed overnight in water Sorrel, of Scordio, Road capraia Tormentilla,
Cicorea, Clover and White Dittany boiled. There is, then, a prescription for
preparing to take the next day at dawn to expel residues of matter: water
sorrel syrup and cedar vinegar with water of hops, borage and endiuia. In the
syrup is mixed and left overnight a powder in a cloth tied composed of
marguerites, red coral and Armenian bole. After the phlebotomy the patient of
the plague are recommended even eight grains of emerald(40)
with one drama
an antidote of blood; and, then, an efficient secret remedy: mixture of onion
juice (ounce i), apples liqueur (ou ii), strong vinegar (ou iii) to drink warm
with the patient in bed well covered to induce heavy sweating(41)
. Are
described, in addition, the modality to preserve from the plague with
evacuation of ‘superfluous’ making use of catheters in various parts of the
body, especially 4-5 fingers below the left knee; in addition to what is
recommended that the famous and popular pills of Ruffo (two parts of aloe,
one of saffron and one of myrrh amalgamated with wine) that Avicenna
recommended daily intake of about 1 drama three hours before dinner. At
seven o'clock before eating is recommended lattovari large (theriac,
mitridatum) while 2-3 hours before dinner, we recommend sorrel or bettonica.
It is advised, also, to use powdered rhino horn or unicorn who defend the
heart from ‘poisonous fumes(42)
’. Then there is a therapeutic program(43)
: 1st
day: theriac; the 2nd day: tormentil powder, cedar and holy thistle seeds in
equal parts; on the 3rd day: lattovario of Armenian bole (dr. VI),

cinnammomo (dr . II), galangal (dr. I), carnations (dr. I and a half), tormentil
beard (½ ounce ), sugar infused into rose water infusion (lib. I); on the 4th
day: pills Ruffo about 1 drama; the 5th day: hazelnut or mitridatum (dr. II );
the 6th day: 1 dr. lenia earth dissolved with rose water or wine; the 7th day:
dr. 1 and a half of antidote of sludges; 8th day: pills Ruffo; the 9th day: 12
grains of Bezaar stone; the 10th day: 3 ounces of mixture: pink water (½ lib.),
fragrant wine (onc. ii), Armenian bole (dr. ii); day 11: juice of rue capraia
called in Rome Turina, in Lombardy Galena and in Tuscany Capraggine; day
12: pills Ruffo; day 13: scordeo powder with rose water or wine; a mouthful
of Verbena supine (St John’s Herbs); a compound with rhubarb; a complex
lattovari; an antidote. By then, the cycle is repeated for another 13 days and a
shortfall of some remedy can be replaced with a ‘bite’ of Sorrel in the
morning and Clover said ‘hallelujah’ in the evening. Other remedies are : a
bite St John’s Herbs (Verbena supine), 1 scruple of rhubarb chewed slowly; 2
walnuts, 2 dried figs and about 20 leaves of rue with a little salt; Armenian
bole distilled to alembic (ou I) infused for 24 hours with strong vinegar (ou
IIII) and lemon juice (lib II). In another famous remedy very complex (already
used in the plague epidemics of 1348 and 1376), to be taken in quantities of 1
drama every morning on an empty stomach, include over 40 elements, among
which: juniper berries, cloves, mace, nutmeg, gengiuo , zedoaria, aristolochia
long and rounded, gentian, tormentil, ditamo white root, helenio, Been red and
white, ghiaggiuolo, doronici and rue, mint, cuddling laurel, basil and cedar
seeds, incense, Armenian bole, sealed earth, filing ivory, Alicorno horn,

pearls, coral red and white, rubies, topazes, sapphires, hyacinths, roses
preserves, tamarind, etc.(44)
. Do not miss the lines prophylaxis with
lifestyle(45)
: the air must be ‘dried’ and, according to Avicenna, treated with
the fumes of sandalwood, camphor, bark of pomegranate, myrtle, quince
apples, herbeno, tamarisk, currant; the sick refresh with the tops of the plants
fresh, fragrant fruits, camphor, rose water, sandalwood; the house is ‘wet’ a
few times a day especially with rose water, willows and waterlily. It avoids
the ‘putrefaction’ using aloe, frankincense, carnations, turpentine, laudanum,
apple liqueur crocus, bitter almonds, etc. An important fragrance is the
oxirodinum: rose oil with vinegar(46)
. Day 2: treatment of plague with
purgatives (evening): powderof holy thistle seed, cedar, tormentil beards and
roses crushed and mixed “with a little rose water & a drop of good wine”.
Day 3: syrups or giulebbi long with sorrel, alleluia grass , sow-thistle , clover
smell, cicorea , etc. (referred to in chap. VI). Often take a ‘spoon’ of syrup of
‘cedar vinegarand’ and in the evening 2 or 3 ounces of calendula juice or
verbena supine or bettonica and sweat. Day 4: syrups and 1 dr . Pills of Ruffo
to take all of the following days even. There are, then, means lack of appetite
of sick of the plague(47)
.
Moreover, in case of syncope or fainting of sick of the plague is
recommended to take often, in addition to water of roses, a giulebbo along
with: rose water, flowers of borage and bugloss, violets, sorrel, lemon sauce,
lime, orange and apples cakes, wine and sugar until; all flavored with
powdered coral heads, hyacinths, emeralds, daisies, valerian root, unicorn

horn, amber, vinegar, water (of: rose, bugloss, balm, source, cinnamom),
aloe wood, etc. We recommend, then, that the sheets of the patient are
soaked in rose water and anise, wet face, hands and legs of the patient with
rose water and temples, nose and ears with rosewater and camphor. It cites,
again, a ‘useful liniment’ (for use on the patient’s heart for ‘friction’ and, then,
spread on a silk cloth placed over his heart as a patch) obtained by mixing:
theriac (ou. i), gravy cedar and lemon (ou. half), and seeds of red coral roses
(ana dr. middle), camphor and crocus (ana gr. iii). The bubbles are rubbing
with simple warm water (or, better, with hot fennel, anise, chamomile and a
bit of evil) using a red cloth that wraps around the patient. To extract the
tumors using a cockerel live not yet coupled with chickens, “it plucks
everything behind the tail” and keep it until it dies over the empyema; others
open in half, length-wise, and before it cools, place it empyema; others use the
razor, or bloodsuckers, or quicklime and soap, or plasters of egg yolk with
much salt(48)
. For liver care of the sick, then, it takes a epithima based on:
rose water, absinthe, liver, endiuia, cicorea, solatro ( ana ou. v ), wicked and
vinegar (ana ou. iii) and fresh hepatic spices. With the above ointment and
epithima you make the patient’s testicles care. Against the plague are also
considered various useful antidotes that “weaken the acrimony of poisons,
and hardening the pores, preventing a rapid flow of poison in the body(49)
”. In
addition to the theriac, theriac of the sealed earth and mitridatum include: oil
of vitriol with wine (2 or 3 drops); altea or nettle cooked with dung cockerel;
old wine drinking plenty; applications of powder of emerald under the foot

stripped, plasters to the soles of the feet with onions cooked under the ashes;
among the drugs resistant to poisons there is, again: cedar seed potion; white
dittany root juice; juice angelica root; several components cooked, including:
tormentil , wood aloes, agrimony with wine, thyme. There are still: garlic
juice with wine (ou. I); coconut Indies drink with wine powerful; shaving of
Alicorn horn with wine; shaving rhino horn with wine; milk seeds of
cucumbers, milk seeds of gourds. Finally, there are also many compounds for
sweat: anise oil, oil of scorpions (captured in August at number 100, with
olive oil very old: it puts the oil in the glass bowl on boiler full of boiling
water and will bring you the live scorpions for 4 hours, until they become red
(closing nose and mouth with a cloth so as not to inhale the poisonous fumes),
are added to fine powder of dittany and of leafs of rue capraia (ana ou. i);
cooled is preserved in glass vases and is also useful as a preventive and
antidote to poisoning. It is used by anointing the thoracic area of the winged
pest around the heart and wrists.
10. Insights on the treaty “Contro alla peste” by Marsilio Ficino
In this work, for the buboes are recommended break up elements
compounds and plasters strong: 1st prescription = “Recipe figs & ireos, that
beard gichero, & corn ground, for equal parts”; Colombina with vinegar;
opoponaco with leaven; sparrow dung with pork lard; glass ground in
turpentine; human dung “to break and after the break above adding
breadcrumbs soaked in boiling oil”; oil boiled with ashes(50)
. There are, then,

plasters strong: orpiment and pepper (dr. 2 ), dried figs (ten) with apples
(q.b.); cantarelle with oil of soap; ash oak used by dyers (4 parts), slaked lime
(p. 6) mixed with plaster obtained by boiling oil hot of black olives with ash
and addition of 5 herbs: comfrey, scabiosa, agrimony, bretonica and
aristolochia. There is the poultice of Galen: plantain, lenses, bran bread boiled
in water(51)
. The shock therapy with plasters and break up elements strong, in
order to avoid severe inflammation, is then replaced by a maintenance therapy
with plasters temperate(52)
to be used “where there is not much color green,
or red, or black & corrosion”: Durum bran (two handpieces) cooked in
vinegar; assa, nitro and apples (with or without the addition of theriac:
according to some authors better without it “sends the poison inside”). There
are, then, plasters very temperate(53)
to be used “when the bubble is very
black, & very hot, & very quickly eroding, & swells”: “Recipe: acres
pomegranates cut into pieces and cooked in vinegar and pounded; acacia,
dredging, opium, bark of pomegranates (dr. 1), verdigris, white henbane and
wine”. For reduction of burn and pain of the abscess(54)
is recommended:
“not on the wound, but around” often put “bread crumbs fresh, & hot as it
comes out of the oven, dipped in vinegary wine, or juice of plantain (...) & so
that the plaster does not dry immediately, above you bring plantain leaves.
When you take the plaster washes with strong wine, or vinegary, then put
barley flour with honey”. “To drop the dead flesh from abscess(55)
”, “when
you see the plague already mortified, order now, that the dead flesh to fall:
branca orfina, malvavisco beard, win herba, mallow leaf ( ou. i) pounded and

mixed well with pork lard and bitumen old and after 3 days storage is poured
and adds to casting a bit of wax and mastic”. Up to Chapter XXI are dealt
treatments “according to the intention of doctors Greeks, Latins, and the
Barbarians, maximum according to use of the Italians”. In Chapter XXI treat
“things according to the use of Spanish & Catalani Doctors”. For maturation
of skin very ‘dense’ are recommended: malvavisco beards, lilies,
ellecampana, alpinino watermelon and onion (half pound), fats dried figs
(20), hay seed greek and linseed (ou. I), leaves mauve and malvavisco, branca
orfina, violaria herbs (handful I) cooked for long time in the water and, after
being pounded, add fresh pork lard melted and cast (li. I, q.b.). Some people
add snails with the ‘peel’ pounded. While, if you want a more delicate, adding
fresh fat of hen. If the bubble is green or black or corrosive “washed with
warm salt water, because the blood does not clot” and, then, using a break up
element: egg yolk with a little salt and lard with salt pork old. A break up
element strong, not to be used on the bubbles but around, is: well pulverized
glass powder (ou. half) mixed with corn pounded (ou. I) and place on clean
cloth if you want even more violent action you add lime soap and clothes.
There are, then, many instructions for prophylaxis environmental and
personnel assistance to the sick(56)
: use of turpentine to sanitize
environments; use of vinegar to wash; use of scents and smells good fumes
emitted “carrying in his hand a great candle, or a candlestick” and many fires
in the home(57)
. You must change the bedding often, especially of the bust, and
perfume it with incense, turpentine, juniper, laurel; it is good to have in hand

apples to oranges and a bunch of rue or querciola and mint, melissa with
myrtle; it is good to have fresh flowers ahead. Another prescription for
‘healthy fragrance’ is: rose water, rose vinegar, malvagia and citron peel.
To the nose takes a wet sponge tied to ash wood which has “so much power
against poison, no poisonous animal comes near to his shadow, & its odor, &
before you throw in the fire, rather than approach this”. For the rich, in
addition, it is recommended to drink or hold in mouth or touch or wear around
the neck an emerald “whose virtue is huge against poisons”.
For the poor, however, it is recommended the horseradish root wild and, in
this regard, Dioscorides says even to wash your hands with its seeds crushed
with vinegar and touching, then, the snakes without harm. Then is cited the
stone of Bezahar(58)
, another powerful antidote that second Serapione and
Rafis “resist to all poisons hot & cold, & bites & poisonous wounds, & it
should be taking inside, & putting off, & bringing to the neck, & putting in
mouth (...) its intake is of grains twelve”, from mines Syrian, Oriental, Indian,
which can be 3 colors and the best color is light white wine. Do not miss one
of the recommendations of prophylaxis “run soon, & away, & returns very
late(59)
”.
Are listed, again, various pills(60) “
excellent to preserve the man from the
plague, & are tested, and very recommended”, including glorious pills of
John Damasceno ( panacea for many diseases) composed of various
ingredients, including: burnet, querciuola, myrrh, aloe, saffron and Armenian
bole. Among the secreted remedies tested against the plague “by many great

men, & illustrious” places “for the universal benefit(61)
” include: arsenic
crystal put in a piece of particular tissues and place over your shirt at heart;
powder of Physician Master Mingo from Faenza based white dittany, deer
horn blown, Armenian bole, red sandals , tormentil and camphor; lattovaro of
Bologna containing boiled egg whites with saffron, mustard, tormentil,
dittany, nux vomica and theriac. Manardo from Ferrara, then,
recommended after a bloodletting to expel bad humours mainly by the
subjects sanguine and only if in winter, a preparation of oxy-apples (or
vinegary simple syrup mixed with water or decoction of chicory) and water
bettonica to be taken for 3 days at dawn(62)
.
Among the purgative (from the 4th day of treatment) Manardo prescribes
aggregative pills composed of aloes, agaric, rhubarb, diagridi, be taken with
bettonica water. The 5th day is administered theriac, but if good, because in
this era it is not always considered reliable quality.
In place of a drama theriac poor, Manardo prescribes twice the amount of an
antidote lattovario obtained by mixing a electuary of apples to a powder
composed mainly of: dried blood of goose, duck and goat male and female,
rue, fennel seeds, cumin , anise and turnips, gentian root, red clover, incense,
dried roses, pepper, lettuce, cinnamon , myrrh, assaro, marjoram, agaric,
saffron and mastic.
This antidote should be stored in silver vases or, in makeshift, glass vases. The
6th day Manandro prescribes a powder mixed with wine based tormentil, five

leaf root and cedar seeds and holy thistle; prescribes, in addition, to eat two
walnuts, two figs, twenty leaves of rue with little salt.
The 7th day prescribes verbena. The 8th prescribe hypericum powder mixed
with wine. The 9th day four scruples of Ruffo pills ‘authentic’ obtained from
aromatic white wine mixed to aloe powdered ammonia and myrrh. The last
two days prescribes chewing of rhubarb swallowing slowly. Finally, at the end
of the treatment cycle the therapy is repeated in the same order and by setting
yourself according to the climatic period.

Notes
(1) Holy Bible, Exodus, IX.
(2) Ovidio, Metamorphosis, IX.
(3) M. G. Levi, Dictionary of Medicine and Surgery, 1833.
(4) Pascale Bindio, “Naples in 1656: namely, Documents of the plague that desolated
Naples in 1656”, 1867.
(5) Up to 1537 epidemics have cyclical recurrence.
(6) Giorgio Cosmacini, The Art of Long, Laterza, 1999, p. 211.
(7) Alessandro Manzoni, I promessi sposi, 1827.
(8) Salvatore Argenziano-Aniello Langella, The plague of 1656 in Naples. Clipboard
history, health, religious and curiosity, Vesuvioweb, 2012.
(9) Rif.: Claudio Rendina, Here comes the plague. Horror in the Urbe of ‘600, La
Repubblica, June 9, 2013;
(10) Michele da Piazza, Historia Siculorum.
(11) Giovanni Boccaccio, Decameron, 1351.
(12) Giorgio Cosmacini, Ibid..
(13) Marsilio Ficino Fiorentino, Board of Marsilio Ficino Fiorentino against the
pestilence, What is pestilentia, Chapter I, p. 1, Florence, 1576.
(14) Petrus Michael Gagna, De peste tractatus historico-medicus Latino, ac Italico
idiomate descriptus, 1715.
(15) Resulting from the Poll-tax.
(16) Giorgio Cosmacini, Ibid., p. 206.
(17) Armando Sapori, Tools, The medieval mercantile, 1972.
(18) Lopez.
(19) Pietro Giannone, Civil History of the Kingdom of Naples, Book XXXVII, Chapter. 6.
(20) “If we are to believe the Tadino. Which states that for accuracies made, after the
plague, the population of Milan found himself reduced to little more than sixty thousand
souls, and before that he had two hundred and fifty thousand”.
(21) Carlo Celano (1625–1693), News of the beautiful, ancient and curious of the city of
Naples for the gentlemen strangers given by the canonical split in ten days: "(...) Naples is
one of the most populose cities in Europe. Suffice it to say that in the year 1656 were killed
by the plague four hundred and fifty thousand people ... In the year 1656 it was then very
inauspicious our poor city (deceived by their confidence) murdered by a fierce plague,
which kills in just six months, with indescribable horror if not by those who saw it (like
me), four hundred fifty-four thousand people, for the count at that time you could do
roughly”.
(22) “It did not sound bells, and not crying person, for whatever reason, that almost every
person waiting for death, and it was going on, because people believed that no one would
survive, and many people believed, and said this is the end of World” (Agnolo di Tura).

(23) “And immediately I saw what appeared a pale horse, and he that was over there had a
name, Death, and Hell followed her. And they were given authority over one-fourth of the
earth to kill with sword, and with hunger, and with death” (Apocalypse, 6, 8).
(24) Giovanni Boccaccio, Decameron, 1351.
(25) Matteo Villani, Nova Cronica, 1348-63.
(26) Canon Giovanni of Parma.
(27) Marchionne di Coppo Stefani, Florentine chronicler.
(28) Ensure the cleanliness of the city, on food, on hotels, cemeteries, Lazarets health of
prostitutes, hospitals (only for the strictly medical and non-administrative, pertaining to the
judiciary of the Superintendents of Hospitals and Holy Places), freshness and healthiness
of the water contained in the public cisterns; count births and deaths; guard ships and goods
in transit.
(29) Recommendation of Tommaso del Garbo Fiorentino against the plague: When & how
much in place you must escape; Order to escape. In: Marsilio Ficino, Against the plague,
1576, p. 77 and the following.
(30) Giovan Agostino Contardo, The way to preserve and heal from the plague, 1576.
(31) Jean Manget, Treatise on the Plague, Journal of a Doctor - written during the plague
of Nijmegen (1637), published in 1721.
(32) This concept will disappear only in the nineteenth century with the discovery of
microbes.
(33) www.veneziamuseo.it, Most Serene Republic, Judiciary sottopregadi second Locho,
the supervisors over health care, 2013.
(34) Re: Claudio Rendina, Here comes the plague. Horror in the Urbe of ‘600, La
Repubblica, June 9, 2013;
(35) Prammatica number 12 article 15 of Viceroy Don Garcia de Avellaneda y Haro
(1649).
(36) Jean Manget, Ibid.
(37) Jean Manget, Ibid.
(38) M. Michele Mercati, Education above the plague, The plague preserve mode with the
evacuation of the humors, and before the blood, Chapter VI, p. 28;
(39) Ibid, p. 28 e segg.
(40) Ibid., How and when to take the emerald, p. 55.
(41) Ibid., Instruttione, p. 56.
(42) Ibid, pp. 33-34.
(43) Ibid, p. 34.
(44) Ibid, pp. 37-38.
(45) Ibid, cap. VIII.
(46) Ibid, Above the plague, Smells, p.63.
(47) Ibid, p. 60.
(48) Ibid, p. 64.

(49) Ibid., Instruction on poisons, p. 90 e segg.
(50) Marsilio Ficino, Against the plague, the most Learned Manardo Letter from Ferrara,
where he teaches good order with the real way to preserve, & heal from the plague, with
many brave drugs he tried; translated from the Latin language in Tuscan, by M. Niccolò
Lorenzini Medical Politiano, p. 97.
(51) Ibid, Against the plague, p. 67.
(52) Ibid., Chapt. XIIII, p. 56.
(53) Ibid., Chapt. XIV, p. 57.
(54) Ibid., Chapt. XVI, p. 58.
(55) Ibid., Chapt. XVII.
(56) Ibid., Della conservazione di chi governa gli infermi, Chapter XXII, pp. and the
following.
(57) Ibid., p. 69.
(58) Ibid., Bezahar stone, & his virtues, & what is the best, p. 72.
(59) Ibid., Chapt. XXIII.
(60) Ibid., Infinite virtues of the pills, which are appropriate to the time of pestilence,
Chapt. XXVIII.
(61) Ibid., Recommendation of Garbo, Chapt. XXVIII., p. 95.
(62) Ibid., Letter of Manardo from Ferrara, p. 99.
Apparatus fontium
Mercati, Michele - Instruttione sopra la peste, di M. Michele Mercati medico e filosofo
nella quale si contengono i piu eletti & approuati rimedij, con molti nuoui e potenti secreti
cosi da preseruarsi come da curarsi. Aggiunteui tre altre instruttioni sopra i veleni
occultamente ministrati podagra & paratifi ... - In Rome: appresso Vincentio Accolto.
Rome, pp. 168, 1576; Rome, Lancisiana Academy, Library, Cinquecentine, N. progressive
Catalogue: 56 Location: II d 10;
“All’illustriss. & Eccellentiss. Sig. Iacopo Buoncompagno Governator Generale di Santa
Chiesa, Signor & patrone osservandissimo. Con Privilegij e Licenza de Superiori. Roma,
Appresso Vincenzo Accolto MDLXXVI”. (p. 2);
“RA le molte gratie, e favori, che da la Santità di N. Sig. ho ricevuto, mi fu di somma
contentezza quando S.B. mi confermò la cura della conservatione & accrescimento
dell’horto de semplici, per il gran desiderio, che è stato in me sempre, di pervenire col
mezo delle fatiche, e di tale commodità all’acquisto della vera cognitione delle qualità &

virtù di molte herbe. Hora conoscendomi in obligo di dar qualche saggio di
corrispondenza al giudicio che si è fatto di me in questa professione, incitato ancora dalla
qualità del tempo, che porta seco remori e pericoli di peste in diverse parti, & stimolato
dal beneficio universale, al quale è sopra tutti altri intenta la Santità sua” (p. 3);
(note: main) “Nomi delli autori che si citano nella presente opera: Abenzohar, Aegessipus,
Aimon Monachus, Albucasis, Aristoteles, Arnaldus de Villa nova, Avicenna, Averroes,
Dioscorides, Eusebius, Eutropius, Galeno, San Gregorio Papa, Hieronymus Fracastorius,
Hippocrates, Homerus, Ioannes de Concorregio, Menardus Ferrariensis, Matthiolus
Senensis, Mesue, Paolus Diaconus, Plato, Platearius, Plinius, Procopius, Serapio”, ecc. (p.
4);
“Tavola per alfabeto da trovar facilmente quello che nella presente opera si tratta” (p. 5);
“Istituttione sopra peste di M. Michele Mercati medico e filosofo. Ricercato dalla S.V.
Illustriss. Di instruzione, da preservarsi dalla peste, & da curarsi quando occorresse il
bisogno, mi son sforzato di soddisfare con quella più accurata diligentia & studio, che ha
permesso la prestezza, che mi è stata imposta da lei. La quale istuttione sarà distinta per
maggiore chiarezza in tredici capi più principali”.
“Nel primo si conterrà la definitione della peste. Nel secondo le considerazioni delle
cagioni che la producono. Nel terzo li segni che modificano la peste futura. Nel quarto, li
segni della già presente. Nel quinto, la cura preservativa da essa. Nel sesto il modo di
preservarli con la evacuazioni de gli umori, & in prima del sangue. Nel settimo, il modo di
preservarli con li rimedij resistenti alla pelle, & alla sua cagione, nell’ottavo (…)”.
Ficino, Marsilio - Contro alla peste. / Marsilio Ficino fiorentino. Insieme con Tommaso
del Garbo, Mengo da Faenza, & altri autori, e ricette sopra la medesima materia.
Aggiuntoui di nuouo vna Epistola dell'eccellente Giouanni Manardi da Ferrara, & vno
Consiglio di Niccolo de' Rainaldi da Sulmona, non piu stampati. Con due Tavole, una de i
capitoli, l'altra delle cose notabili. - Florence, pp. 144, 1576; Rome, Lancisiana Academy,
Library, Cinquecentine, N. progressive Catalog: 51, Location: XI d 27;
“Tavola de’ capitoli contenuti nel consiglio di Marsilio Ficino, e Maestro Tommaso del
Garbo in materia della peste. Che cosa è pestilentia, Capitolo I, fa. I; Onde nasce la
pestilentia, & oue regna, II, 3; Come si distende la peste, & in quali persone, III, 5; De
segni della peste, IIII, 7; Come si conserva dalla peste per regola di vita, V, 9; Come si

conserva dalla peste per modo medicinale, VI, 16; Della cura secondo la fisica, VII, 28;
Del cibare, & governo dell’infermo, VIII, 42; Della cura per cerusia, IX, 50; (…) Impiastri
temperati, XIIII, 56; Impiastri temperatissimi, XV, 57; Per mitigare il dolore circa la
postema, XVI, 58; Per far cadere la carne trista della postema, XVII, 59; Per modificare la
piaga, XVIII 60; Per rigenerare la carne buona, XIX, 60; (…) Della cura secondo gli
spagnuoli, & Catelani, XXI, 62; (…) Fuggi presto, & lungi, & torna tardi, XXIII, 73; Chi
sono quelli a cui bisogni piu di fuggire, che agli altri, & che piu pericolo portino, I, 78;
Che fuochi si dee fare, II, 78; (…) Di che si debbe annaffiare, & sboffar la casa, & l’uomo
lavarsi, IIII, 90; (…) Come si dee fare la fuffumigatione, VI, 81; Che l’uomo si dee
guardare da conversazione di troppa gente, VII, 81; Rimedio a chi usa, & visita gli
ammorbati, VIII, 82; (…) Che frutti si debbono usare, XII, 85; (…) Delle spetierie, XVII,
86; (…) Di purgarsi il corpo e di trarre sangue, & rimedi contro alla replezione; XXI, 83;
(…) Del pomo, o vero palla che si debbe portare in mano per odorarla, XXVI, 92;
Giulebbo che è da usare quando è gran caldo, XXVII, 93; Virtù infinite delle pillule che
sono appropriate al tempo della pesti lentia, XXVIII, 93; Ricetta delle pillole, 94; Ricetta di
Maestro Menga da Faenza, 95; Ricetta di un lattouaro fatto nello Studio di Bologna, 96;
(…) Tre nuovi rimedij contro la peste, 120”.
Table alphabetical order.
Select Bibliography
Holy Bible;
G. Boccaccio (1313-1375), Decameron;
M. Villani, Nova Cronica, 1348-63;
M. da Piazza, Historia Siculorum, XIII century;
M. A. Gratiolo di Salò, Speech on the plague, G. Polo,Venice 1576;
M. Mercati - Education above the plague, Vincentio Accolto, Rome 1576;
M. Ficino - Contro alla peste, Florance, 1576;
A. Dr Scobbis, Nuovo et universale theatro farmaceutico, Venice 1667;
B. F. Castiglione, Antidotario milanese, M. Maddius, Milan, 1698;
E. Chambers, Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, G. B. Pasquali, Venice, 1749;

Didenot - D’Alambert, Encyclopédie des Sciences, des Arts et des Métiers, Paris 1751;
J. De Gorter, Medicinae compendium, J. Manfré, Pavia 1757;
A. Zulatti, Compendium of practical medicine, D. Deregni, Venice 1764;
A. Manzoni, I promessi sposi, 1827;
M. G. Levi, Dictionary of Medicine and Surgery, G. Antonelli, Venice 1833;
A. Corradi, Annals of epidemics from early memories to 1850, Bologna 1865;
A. Bertarelli, Three centuries of life in Milan, U. Hoepli, Milano 1927;
A. Benedicenti, Patients, doctors and pharmacists, U. Hoepli, Milan 1951
G. Cosmacini The Art of Long, Laterza, 1999;
R. Villano, Arte e Storia della Farmacia, 1^ Ed. Selecta Medica, Pavia 2005; 2^ Ed. Cea
Zanichelli, Milan 2012.
Synthetic profile of the author
Born in 1960. Roles: Manager Villano International Business Team; CEO
Chiron Editor, Honorary member (2013) and Associate Professor in History of
Healt Administration Pharmaceutical Department of Ruggero II University -
Studiorum Universitas (BR, Miami, Florida, USA, 2014), Diplomatic Advisor
Aerec,Trader since 1976, Knight SMO of Malta, President humanitarian
Foundation Chiron since 1985, member Internat. Group of Study ISHP History
Pharmacopoeias-Bern. Academy: History Art of Health-Ministery B.C., already Pontifical
Tiberina, Studies Melitensi, Medical Tradition Smithsonian Institution-USA, International
Society History Pharmacy, Italian Pharmacy History, Neapolitan Society History
Homeland, honorary of Noble Chemical Pharmaceutical College. Over 100 conferences
and chairman in dozens of congress. Collaborates with important nationals and
internationals Journals. Is Advisory Board Member for american Editor DPC, which
publishes in more than 150 Nations. Study: classic; degree and enabling: Pharmacy (1985);
certified courses of: Officinalsplants, Cosmetics technical, Corporate security, Haccp,
History, Social Doctrine of the Church, Theology. Degrees h.c.: Human and Social
Sciences (2009); History and Philosofy (2010); Sciences of the Communication (2013).
Master h.c.: Science Medical Ethics (2010). It was: author, organizer and chairman Safety
course for managers, getting High Patronages by Chief of State and ONU (2000), Secretary
International Committee BiothecnologiesWabt-Unesco 2008-13, member of World
Academy Biomedical Technology (Unesco 2007-12), 11 years in Scientific Board for
safety of health of IBD (responsible company of safety of Tribunals Appeals Court

Naples), Board member of Beaumont Onlus Foundation for cancer researh with Prefect of
Naples (2011-12). 32 year partner and owner of pharmacy.Member since 1990, Secretary
at age 29 1990-95 and President 2000 Rotary Club Pompei-Oplonti-Vesuvio; in
Commettees of Italy: Professional Etic, Mondial Action, Informatic; among the many
international roles: Pompeii.Carthagearcheology; Committee Prize Magna Grecia.President
in Napoli, national coordinator and founder Youngs Pharmacists Federation; national
Representative Federative Pact of Pharmacists. Assistant role Pharmacy Phaculty of Naples
(1985-90, professorship Lembo - Superior Institut of Health). Internationals awards:
Diploma of Honor for exceptional Services on an individual basis in the 5 Avenues of
Action by Rotary International President (Evanston 2001: only 100/year/1,5 milion
member); Reward Anti Crime-Task Force Rotary Italy, Albany, former Yugoslavia, S.
Marine (Zurich 2001); Sapientia Mundi-Etic (Rm 2008); Legion Union of Gold-Work (Rm
2010); Veritas in Charitate-Religion (2011); Boniface-Culture and Society (2011);
Nationals awards: Aesculapius-Health Patron. Council of Ministers (Rm 1987); LXVIII
Piccinini-Research (Rm 2006); LXV Stramezzi-Health (Rm 2007); Capitolino-
Humanitarian activity (Rm 2010); Tiberin-Science and Culture (Rm 2012); LXXIV Serono-
History (Rm 2012), Aerec-Culture (Rm 2013); Reward by Certificate of merits public
italian Health (DPR 2013). Author of over 630 publications sanitary, professionals,
scientifics, historicals, religiosus; over 50 books with prestigious publishers as Zanichelli,
with sponsorships from the Ministry of Cultural Heritage,Unesco, Rotary, University, etc.,
present in Libraries italians (including: Quirinale, National Science Accademy, Ministries)
and of over 40 Nations (including: National Institute Health-USA, Nationale de France,
Congress UK), in Istituts of Culture, university, museums;a your book debuted to the Fair
of Frankfurt. Catalogs: 2000 Outstanding Intellectuals IBC-Cambridge since 2010; Opac
Sbn with over 130 works; Card of Authority by Ministry BAC. Various books are
appreciated from authorities, including more times the Head of State and the Holy Father.
* * *
Some books: Gobal society of information, 1996; Rotary for Men, 2001; Management
safety in Pharmacy (pres. Dr. Renzulli, already Safety Advisor of ONU, 2004); Pharmacy
art and history (pres. PhD Ledermann, Presid. International Society History Pharmacy, 2
edit., 2006); History and activity of SMOM (4 edit., 2007); Pharmaceutical meridians
between secular ethics and catholic moral (pres. PhD Tarro, Bioethic National Commettee,
3 edit., 2008); Thesaurus Pharmacologicus (pres. Presid. Italians Pharmacist Dr. Mandelli
2009); Time carved in the silence of eternity. Diacronic reflections on investigation for the
memory of homo faber (pres. eminent historian Fra’ von Lobstein and critic PhD Carosella,
6 repr., 2010); Pharmaceutical Activities Kingdom of Naples (pres.: Presid. It. Ac.
Pharmacy History Dr. Corvi, 2010); Logos and theophany in digital times (pres. Mons.
Trafny, Presid. Dpt Science-Faith Pontifical Culture Council, 2012). Among the 40
multimedia: Perfume of times. Art and pharmacy history (patron. AISF, 2002); Influence
A/H1N1 (patron. Unesco, 2009).

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