This document provides information on various phytopharmaceuticals including their sources, constituents, pharmacology, therapeutic uses, and regulatory status. Some of the phytopharmaceuticals discussed include ephedra, ginger, garlic, kava kava, ginkgo biloba, valerian, chamomile, echinacea, ginseng, cranberry, acorus, comfrey, tomato, liquorice, senna, and cascara. For each one, key details about its botanical source, active constituents, pharmacological effects, recommended dosage, market preparations, and regulatory classification are summarized.

1. PHYTOPHARMACEUTICALS

2. CONTENT
• Ephedra
• Ginger
• Garlic
• Kava kava
• Ginkgo biloba
• Valerian
• Chamomile
• Echinacea
• Ginseng
• Cranberry
• Acorus
• Comfrey
• Tomato
• Liquorice
• Senna
• Cascara

3. EPHEDRA
• Source: dried stem of
• Ephedra sinica, E. equisentina (China)
• E. gerardiana, E. intermedia, E. major (India, Paskistan) family Ephedraceae
• Constituents: Ephedrine, pseudo ephedrine, methyl ephedrine
• (norephedrine does not occur naturally, its presence is proof of
adulteration)
• Label claim: 10 or 11 mg ephedrine

4. EPHEDRA
• Pharmacology: CVS & Respiratory effects
• MOA: alpha 2, beta 1, 2, 3 receptor stimulator
• Release of norepinephrine from nerve ending due to alpha2 & beta 1
• Not preferred for Asthma: downregulation quickly occurs and the
bronchodilator effects are lost
• No significant action on BP
• Weight loss: Beta 3 (adipose tissue) receptor agonist

5. EPHEDRA
• Clinical studies:
• Asthma : no good result
• Weight loss: ephedrine/caffeine combination showed good result
• Athletic performance: ephedrine/caffeine combination showed good result
• Pharmacokinetic: pure from is easily absorbed compared herbal extracted
form

6. EPHEDRA
• Toxicity: Neurological, Renal
• Drug interactions: MAO
• Therapeutic uses:Weight loss (ephedrine→ reduce body fat),
• Athletic performance (increase dopamine → increase free fatty acids)
• Dose: NMT 32 mg/day
• Regulatory status: prohibiting the sale of dietary supplements containing
ephedrine alkaloids (ephedra)

7. GINGER
• Source: dried rhizomes of Zingiber officinale, Z. capitatum
• Family: Zingiberaceae
• Constituents: 6-Gingerol, Shagol
• Pharmacology:
• GIT effect: motion sickness (inhibition of 5HT3 receptors)
• Anti inflammatory
• Migraine prevention (inhibition of arachidonic acid metabolism)

8. GINGER
• Pharmacokinetic: no human studies
• Drug interactions:Antiplatelet, anticoagulants
• Therapeutic uses: Nausea,Anti-inflammatory & analgesic
• Recommended dose: 170 mg to 1 g → 3to4 times daily
• Market preparation: Halls ginger, Himalaya Ginger digestive comfort
• Regulatory status: official monograph USPNF and dietary supplement,
OTC product for motion sickness

9. GARLIC
• Source: dried bulbs of Allium sativum
• Family: Liliaceae
• Constituents: Sulphur containing compounds
• Allicin, DAS, DADS, DATS,Ajoene
• Pharmacology
• CVS: reduce fibrinolytic activity, reduce LDL-cholesterol, antihypertensive,
antiplatelet (inhibit HMG-CoA reductase and other lipogenic enzymes)
• GI: relieve abdominal discomfort, gas, antibacterial (H.pylori)

10. GARLIC
• Antifungal: topical garlic -1% ajoene
• Pharmacokinetic: rapidly and easily absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract and
distributed mainly in plasma, liver, and kidney
• Adverse effects: if not refrigerated, contact dermatitis
• Drug interactions:Antiplatelet,Anticoagulants,Anti HIV
• Therapeutic uses: CVS,Antifungal
• Recommended dose: up to 2.5 g fresh raw garlic
• Market preparation: Himalaya lasuna cardiac wellness, Nutralite garlic heartcare

11. GARLIC
• Regulatory status: GRAS (generally recommended as safe)
• food

12. KAVA KAVA
• Source: dried roots & rhizomes of Piper methysticum
• Family: Piperaceae
• Constituents: Kava lactones: Kawain, Methysticin,Yangonin, dihydrokawain
• Pharmacology:
• Neurological effects: antidepressant, anti-anxiety, anxiolytic (GABA binding
in amygdala by Kavapyrone)
• Sedation: (inhibition of noradrenaline uptake)
• Anxiolytic, euphoric (mesolimbic dopaminergic pathway)

13. KAVA KAVA
• Pharmacokinetic: excreted in urine
• Adverse drug reactions: dermopathy (discoloration of skin, nail)
• Drug interactions: alcohol + kava → hypnotic since kava inhibits
metabolism of cytochrome
• Therapeutic uses:Anxiety
• Recommended dose: NMT 250mg (kava lactone), not in children
• Market preparation: Kava stress relief, Girnar green tea Desi kaiwa
• Regulatory status: worldwide either banned or issued waning, US dietary
supplement

14. GINKGO BILOBA
• Source: dried leaves of Ginkgo biloba (Syn. Maidenhair Tree)
• Family: Ginkgoaceae
• Constituents: Ginkgolides, Bilobalides, Flavonoids
• Pharmacology:
• CNS: neuron protection (antioxidant)
• Memory/cognition improvement, little effect
• Anxiolytic: blockage of 5HT3 receptors
• Endocrine effects: increase blood glucose, decrease insulin

15. GINKGO BILOBA
• Pharmacokinetic: good bioavailability but excreted in urine unchanged
• Adverse drug reaction & toxicity: cerebral haemorrhage, increase bleeding
time
• Drug interactions:Antiplatelet
• Therapeutic uses: improve blood flow to brain, improve peripheral
circulation so sharpen focus
• Recommended dose: 120-240 mg/day
• Market products: GERITISIN tab 40 mg FDC
• Regulatory status: US dietary supplement, Germany: memory &
depression

16. VALERIAN
• Source: dried roots, rhizomes & stolons of Valeriana wallichii (India), V.
officinalis (Europe)
• Family:Valerianaceae
• Constituents:Valepotriates (Iridoid moiety)
• Volatile oil- valerenic acid, valerenal, valerenol
• Pharmacology:
• Insomnia: improved sleep quality, latency depth (inhibition of enzyme that
breakdown GABA)
• Antidepressant: reuptake of MAO neurotransmitters

17. VALERIAN
• Anxiety: reduce Systolic BP
• Anxiolytic: due toValepotriates
• Pharmacokinetic:
• Fast absorption & elimination
• Therapeutic uses: Sedative-Hypnotic (sedative),Anxiolytic (restlessness)
• Recommended dose: Insomnia (400-600 mg/day 1 hr before bed time for
2-4 week)
• Anxiety: 150mg/day in a 3 divided dose/4 week

18. VALERIAN
• Market preparation: Himalaya Tagara, Natures answer valerian root 500
mg, Relaxul valerian
• Toxicity: caution with antifungal & statin
• Drug interactions: Barbiturates, Benzodiazepines,Alcohol, CNS depressant
• Regulatory status: US does not recommend (due to insufficient data)
• Safe as food & used as sleeping aid worldwide

19. CHAMOMILE
• Source: flowers of Matricaria chamomilla
• Family: Compositae
• Constituents:Alpha bisabolol,Apigenin (flavonoid), Coumarin
• Pharmacology:
• Neurologic effect: Chamomile oil vapour (action on GABA)
• Sunscreen & Skin cancer: Flavonoids-apigenin (inhibition of protein kinase
C)
• Anti-inflammatory: mucositis, stomatitis

20. CHAMOMILE
• Toxicity:Anaphylaxis
• Pharmacokinetic; Blood, Urine
• Therapeutic uses: Skin & mucous membrane inflammation
• Recommended dose: 11 to 15 g/day, topical cream, gel,oil
• Market preparation: VLCC neem facewash with chamomile, O3+
chamomile hydrating, Lotus
• Regulatory status: chamomile & its oil official in USP, EP
• Dietary supplement & GRAS status

21. ECHINACEA
• Source: roots, leaves & flowers of Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia, E.
pallida (Syn. Coneflower)
• Family: Compositae
• Constituents: Echinacoside (caffeic acid derivative)-PHENOL
• Unsaturated fatty acid-alkylamide
• Pharmacology:
• Immunologic effect: Cichoric acid, polysaccharide, alkylamide (phagocytic
activity), increase WBC, IL-2 level
• Antimicrobial : Upper respiratory Tract infection

22. ECHINACEA
• Antiviral: Herpes simplex virus (HSV)
• Antifungal: polyacetylene increase amount of TNF-alpha so inhibit growth
of yeast
• Would healing: Echinacoside has antihyaluronidase action
• Anti-inflammatory:Alkylamide→COX2 inhibitor
• Pharmacokinetic: rapid absorption after single dose

23. ECHINACEA
• Adverse drug reaction: Immunosuppressant, pyrrolizidine alkaloid→ liver
toxicity
• Therapeutic uses: 300 mg dry powdered extract (echinacoside 3.5%)
• Market preparation: Echinacea immunity (ALLEN) 400 mg, Echinacea plus
tonic, Echinaforce cold & flu oral dops (A.Vogel)
• Regulatory status: dietary supplement (US), OTC homeopathic drug

24. GINSENG
• Source: dried roots of Panax ginseng
• Family:Araliaceae
• Constituents: Pentacyclic triterpene: Ginsenosides
• Pharmacology:
• Endocrine effects: hypoglycemic, increase hepatic lipogenesis, glycogen
storage
• Anti fatigue: Ginsenoside (increase ACTH, Cortisol)
• Neurologic effect: CNS stimulant, dementia, cognition

25. GINSENG
• Immunologic effect:
• Red ginseng: increase cell mediated immunity
• Pharmacokinetic:
• Bioavailability 49%, distributed in kidney, excreted in urine
• Therapeutic uses: Anti-stress, Adaptogen, Stimulate immunity, mental and
physical wellness
• Marketed preparation: Revital (212.5 mg), Supractiv capsule
• Recommended dose: 1-2 g/thrice upto 3 months

26. GINSENG
• Contraindications/ Adverse drug reactions: Hypersensitivity,Anaphylaxis,
• Inappropriate uses: BP, Diarrhea, Depression, Sleeplessness
• Regulatory status:
• Germany: non prescription drug, fatigue, debility
• US: dietary supplement

27. CRANBERRY
• Source: fruits ofVaccinium macrocarpon
• Family: Ericaceae
• Constituents: Flavonoids, Proanthocyanidins
• Pharmacology:
• Antimicrobial: Fructose + Glycoprotein (inhibiting adherence to mucosal
surface)
• Mild antiviral (polyphenols)
• GIT: large amount (more than 3 to 4 liter/day). Diarrhea, GI symptoms

28. CRANBERRY
• Renal effects: lower urine pH, reduce urinary complaints, calculus
management
• Recommended dose: up to 1 liter/ day juice up to 1200 mg/day capsule
• Toxicity & Drug interactions:Warfarin, Diabetes
• Therapeutic uses: symptomatic relief to UTI, improve odor
• Marketed preparation:Tropicana, Real cranberry juice
• Cranfit tablet (Cranberry + D-mannose 300 mg)
• Regulatory status: Dietary supplement, Food

29. ACORUS
• Source: dried rhizomes of Acorus calamus (Syn. Sweet flag)
• Family:Acoraceae
• Constituents: Beta Asarone (volatile oil), Bitter acorine
• Pharmacology:
• Musculoskeletal: Spasmolytic
• CVS effect: In vitro, negative inotropic effect
• Pharmacokinetic:
• Toxicity: contact dermatitis

30. ACORUS
• Therapeutic uses: Ulcers, upset stomach
• Recommended dose: 250-500 mg powder
• Market preparation: Goorganic Vacha powder, Surajbala ancient healer
calamus essential oil
• Regulatory status: banned in US due to concern over carcinogenicity

31. COMFREY
• Source: dried leaves of Symphytum officinale (Syn. Bruise wart, Knitback,
Knitbone)
• Family: Boraginaceae
• Constituents: Rosmarinic acid, Mucopolysaccharide, allantoin, mucilage,
symphytin
• Pharmacology:
• GIT effect: peptic ulcer (more release of prostaglandins)
• Hepatotoxicity: due to Symphytine
• Shorten dermal use not dangerous

32. COMFREY
• Pharmacokinetic: absorption through skin & GIT
• Therapeutic uses: Burn, Swelling, Sprain
• Recommended dose: NMT 100 microgram/day, not exceeding 4-6
week/year
• Market preparation: Nature’s aid comfrey oil, Comfrey adult diapers,
VLCC vitalift comfrey & soy anti-aging serum
• Regulatory status: not acceptable as food, External use
• US: no internal use

33. TOMATO
• Source: fruits of Solanum lycopersicon
• Family: Solanaceae
• Constituents: Carotenoid – lycopene
• Pharmacology:
• CVS:
• Anticancer: interfere with growth factor induce apoptosis cell

34. TOMATO
• Pharmacokinetic:
• Concentration: Liver, adrenal, spleen, lymph node, intestine
• Therapeutic uses:Antioxidant, Cancer prevention, CVS prevention
• Market preparation: Healthvit lycopene 1000 microgram capsule
• Lycored syrup
• Zenith nutrition lycopene with multivitamin capsule
• Recommended dose: 7 to 75 mg/day
• 10-30 mg/ twice with meals

35. TOMATO
• Contraindications:
• Hypersensitive,Acidic stomach ulcer
• Adverse drug reactions: diarrhea, dyspepsia, Gas, Nausea
• Leaf→ unsafe
• Toxicity: not known
• Regulatory status: food ingredient

36. LIQUORICE
• Source: dried roots & stolons of Glycyrrhiza glabra
• Family: Leguminosae
• Constituents: tri-tepenoid saponin-Glycyrrhizin,
• Pharmacology:
• Respiratory effect: cough, expectorant (insufficient data)
• GIT effects: increase mucous secretion, life span of gastric epithelial cells,
inhibition of back diffusion of hydrogen ions
• Toxicity & Adverse drug reactions: Hypokalemia, pulmonary edema,
hypertension

37. LIQUORICE
• Source: dried roots & stolons of Glycyrrhiza glabra
• Family: Leguminosae
• Constituents: tri-tepenoid saponin-Glycyrrhizin,
• Pharmacology:
• Respiratory effect: cough, expectorant (insufficient data)
• GIT effects: increase mucous secretion, life span of gastric epithelial cells,
inhibition of back diffusion of hydrogen ions
• Toxicity & Adverse drug reactions: Hypokalemia, pulmonary edema,
hypertension

38. LIQUORICE
• Therapeutic uses: Sore throat, cough, gastritis (GI) Complaints
• Recommended dose: 760 mg-15 g for ulcer, gastritis 0.2 mg/kg/day
• Market preparation: Gutgard (Gastric) Natural remedy
• VLCC licorice cold cream, Dabr honitus syrup
• Regulatory status: not recommended in potassium deficiency,
• US-dietary supplement, food additive
• Germany-peptic ulcer

39. SENNA
• Source: dried leaves & leadflets of Cassia angustifolia, C. acutifolia
• Family: Leguminosae
• Constituents: Dianthrone (sennoside A, B, C, D)
• Pharmacology:
• GIT effects: laxative
• Pharmacokinetic: high molecular weight → poor absorption
• Therapeutic uses: Constipation
• Marketed preparation: GNC herbal plus senna leaf ext, Laxa HealthTea

40. SENNA
• Recommended dose: 172 mg/day
• Drug interactions: Digoxin, Diuretic, Blood thinner
• Regulatory status: Germany, US approved
• From Category 1 to 3 (insufficient data)
• Toxicity: Bowels’ disorders, Crohn;s disease, heart

41. CASCARA
• Source: dried bark of Rhamnus purshiana (Syn. Sacred bark, Buckthorn)
• Family: Rhamnaceae
• Constituents: Cascaroside
• Pharmacology:
• GIT effect: laxative (active secretion of H2O, electrolyte within lumen of
small intestine,Athrone→ inhibit absorption of H2O, electrolyte in bowel
• Strength dilation of pressure in intestine to stimulate peristalsis [ 1 year
storage, oxidation to allow harsh constituents, fresh bark → not used
intestinal cramps
• Contraindications: Crohn’s disease, Ulcerative colitis

42. CASCARA
• Therapeutic uses: Laxative
• Recommended dose: 1 g of bark, 2-6 ml of fluid extract, 100-300 mg of
dried bark extract
• Regulatory status:
• USP monograph, dietary supplement
• Category 1 to 3 (more safety data needed)