ADVANCES IN THE PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF CASSAVA

1. CASSAVA

2. Introduction
• Cassava (Syn: Tapioca)
• SC: Manihot esculenta (Crantz)
• Family: Euphorbiaceae
• Ch. No: 2n = 2x = 36

3. • Cassava is the most important starchy root crop grown in the tropics and is
mainly cultivated in southern peninsular India.
• Crop played a significant role to overcome food shortage among the low
income group of people in Kerala.
• Underground tuber is rich in starch and mainly consumed after cooking.
• Processed products like chips, sago and vermicelli made of tapioca are also
popular in the country.
• Being easily digestible, it forms an important ingredient in poultry and cattle-
feeds.
• It is also widely used for production of industrial alcohol, starch and glucose

4. • Economic part of this plant are roots or
tubers.
• Tubers also contain a deadly poisonous
chemical i.e. HCN.
• Upon sun drying cyanide derivatives disappear
from slices of cassava.

5. SPECIES
• M. anomala
• M. caerulescence
• M. euprinosa
• M. flabellifolia – wild progenitor
• M. glaziovii
• M. grahami
• M. tristis
• M. peruviana – wild progenitor
• M. pruinosa – closest wild relative

6. ORIGIN & DISTRIBUTION
• North-Eastern Brazil is the centre of origin.
• Portuguese distributed the crop from Brazil to countries like Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia
and India.
• Nigeria is the major growing country in world accounting for 50% of area and production.
• In India crop is cultivated in southern peninsular region, particularly Kerala, Tamil Nadu and
Andhra Pradesh contributing 93% of area and 98% of production in the country.
• Kerala accounts for nearly 50% of total area under cassava in India and is mainly grown as
rainfed crop.

7. AREA, PRODUCTION & PRODUCTIVITY
World/Continents Area (Mha) Production (Mt) Productivity (t/ha)
World 26.34 291.99 11.08
Asia 3.91 85.76 21.93
Africa 20.24 177.95 8.79
America 2.18 28.04 12.89
Europe - - -
Oceania 0.02 0.24 11.90
FAOSTAT (FAO, 2019)

8. In Asia
Asia Area (Mha) Production (Mt) Productivity (t/ha)
Thailand 1342.40 34.32 30973.29
Indonesia 779.00 19.92 19046.00
Vietnam 532.50 13.62 10267.57
Cambodia 392.07 10.02 10577.81
China mainland 293.69 7.51 4847.10
Philippines 234.54 6.00 2807.67
India 199.00 5.09 4171.00
FAOSTAT (FAO, 2019

9. NUTRITIONAL BENEFITS
Zekarias et al.,2019

11. BOTANY
• Slender shrub, 2-7 m high, Sparingly branched
• Stem is thick with prominent leaf scars, variously
coloured
• Leaves simple, alternate, long stalked, palmately
lobed, segments obovate laceolate, glabrous.
• Linamarin and lotaustralin are synthesised in the
leaves of cassava plants and transported to the
tuberous roots (Koch et al., 1992).

12. • Inflorescence borne in axillary racemes
near the end of branches.
• It is monoecious with male flowers at
top and female flowers at bottom.
• Female flowers larger in size than male
ones.
• Each flower have 5 united sepals yellow
tinged.
• Male flower has 10 stamens arranged in
two whorls of 5 stamens each
alternately long and short, one
converting and other diverging
• Filaments are free and anthers small
and basifixed
• Basal nectiferous disc, fleshy and orange
in colour

13. • Female flowers, perianth lobes
are completely free
• Superior ovary, mounted on a 10
lobed glandular disc, tricarpellary,
3 locued, 6 ridged
• Single ovule in each locule
• Style surrounded by 3 lobed
stigma, each lobe much sub
divided forming highly lobed
stigma.

14. • Fruit is ovoid, globose with 9 longitudinal plicate wings

15. GROWTH STAGES

16. Breeding Objectives
• High yield (>35 t/ha fresh root)
• High starch (>25%)
• Short duration
• High harvest index
• Responsive to additional inputs
• Non-branching plant type
• Low HCN content
• Good cooking and eating quality
• Early harvestability
• Better root storage quality
• Shade tolerance for use as
intecrop under coconut etc.
• Wide adaptation
• Compact branches
• Compact root system
• Resistance to major diseases
(Cassava bacterial blight,
anthracnose, brown leaf spot,
cassava mosaic virus)
• Tolerance to adverse soil and
climate conditions

17. Breeding methods
• Clonal selection
• Hybridization and selection
• Interspecific hybridization
• Heterosis breeding
• Polyploidy breeding
• Mutation breeding
• Biotechnological approaches

18. Clonal selection
(CTCRI-1654)
M4 and M6 from Malaysia
Sree Prakash, Sree Jaya, Sree Vijaya, Nidhi,
Kalpaka, Vellayani Hraswa
Acc. S-1309, S-1310, S-315, S-2407 and s-2331
Co-1, Co-2, Co-3 and Co-4 - TNAU
Hybridization and
Selection
H-97, H-165, H-226
Sree Visakham (H-1687)
Sree Sahya (H-2304)
Sree Rekha
Sree Prabha
Polyploidy breeding Sree Harsha
Sree Athulya
Sree Apoorva

19. VARIETIES

20. CTCRI

23. • Co 2, Co 3, CO (TP) 4, MVD 1, H 165, H 226,
• Sree Vishakam (H.1687), Sree Sahaya (H.2304), Sree Prakash (S. 856), Sree Vijaya, Sree Jaya, Sree
Pekha, Sree Prabha,
• Co (Tp) 5, H - 97, H - 165, H - 226 and Sree Harsha
TNAU

24. TAPIOCA AND CASTOR RESEARCH STATION - YETHAPUR

26. ADVANCES

27. RESEARCH STUDY

29. • Triadimefon and
hexaconazole treatments
increased the total
chlorophyll and chlorophyll
“a” and “b” content in the
leaves of tapioca.
• The increased chlorophyll
content was also attributed
to more densely packed
chloroplasts in a small leaf
area

30. RESEARCH STUDY

31. 30 days: mini-cuttings dehydrated within 30 days; 9 days: mini-cuttings dehydrated within
9 days; 3 days: mini-cuttings dehydrated over a period of 3 days

32. • During the study, it was found that the dehydration of cassava mini-cuttings was
not constant, but that it evolved over time.
• This evolution is marked by the succession of phase with high dehydration, phase
with low dehydration and finally of phase showing a quasi-zero dehydration.
• Indeed, the fresh plant material contains an enormous amount of water in the cell
vacuoles as well as tissues, allowing a good hydric regulation of the entire
vegetative apparatus.
• Moreover, the surplus of this water is eliminated from the plant by several
phenomena in particular by the lenticular transpiration.

33. RESEARCH STUDY

34. Six cassava genotypes
were selected because
of their late or
negligible flowering
habit (erect plant
architecture with late or
no branching):
SM3348-29;
SM3402-42;
SM3409-42;
SM3409-43;
GM3500-9 and
GM3500-2.
Stems of these non-
flowering types were
grafted on an early,
profuse-flowering clone
(HMC1) understock

36. • it showed a delayed effect that could only be observed in plants cloned from the
grafted stems. Grafting had an effect of accelerating branching in most genotypes,
particularly after the second branching events.
• Unfortunately, in most cases branching occurred without the parallel production of
flowers. It is not clear if inflorescences failed to develop or if they did develop but
aborted before their presence could be detected.
• In one case, however, grafting induced earlier flowering and more abundant
production of fruits and seeds. Stem cuttings from the 24 plants derived from
grafts or ordinary stems of genotype SM3348-29 will be taken from this
experiment and planted to assess if the results of grafting have a residual effect on
a second growing season

38. RESEARCH STUDY

41. • The results obtained in this study provide important information for
the optimization of the production system of cassava propagation
material through the use of leaf buds.
• Despite the lower shoot and root productive potential compared to
plants derived from stem cuttings of 20 cm, this study lists
important agronomic indicators to be taken into account in the
assembly of a new cassava propagation material production system
using leaf buds.

42. RESEARCH STUDY

43. • CASS biotechnology strategy aims at
increasing cassava storage root and starch
yield by simultaneously increasing source
(photosynthesis, sucrose biosynthesis, phloem
loading) and sink (sucrose-to-starch
conversion) metabolism

45. RESEARCH STUDY

47. From the experiment it can be concluded that maximum plant height (141.63 cm) was
recorded in chip budded plants raised in pot mixture containing Pseudomonas (T10) at
eight months after planting. The maximum (8.6 cm) and minimum stem girth (6.8 cm) was
recorded in chip budded plants raised in pot mixture containing Pseudomonas (T10) and
Mini sett plants raised in pot mixture containing Pseudomonas (T9).

48. • The maximum tuber yield per plant (7.26 kg) was
recorded in chip budded plants raised in Cocopeat
containing Pseudomonas (T4) which was significantly
different over the other treatment.
• Based on the findings, high density planting in cassava
can be attempted for getting maximum tuber and
starch yield by utilizing disease free planting materials.

49. RESEARCH STUDY

50. Intercropped with castor

51. • It has multifaceted role in fulfilling the needs of the tribal
people in rural areas contributing to food security, poverty
eradication and livelihood improvement.
• Tapioca is preferred to be eaten as a snack after boiling
with addition of salt. Apart from use as snack different
types of value added products like tapioca cakes, biscuits,
chips, barfi, sagu, starch etc. can be prepared.

52. • Tapioca flour has the largest amount of pure starch, more than any other
crop and has great value in the textile industries, in pharmaceutical
industries, as adhesives etc.
• The cassava flour finds use in making vermillion and natural holi colours.
• Above all, tapioca leaves are used as secondary food source for the Eri
culture industry closely associated with the culture and tradition of the
Bodo tribes and occupies a prominent place in the Socioeconomic
development and livelihood improvement of the people particularly Bodo
women folk of BTR of Kokrajhar district of Assam, India.

55. CULTIVATION
PRACTICES

56. Climate
• Cassava is a tropical crop tolerant to drought and cannot withstand
frost.
• It is grown in altitudes up to 2000 m, but performance is better in
lower altitudes.
• Though crop can be grown even in semi-arid conditions, growth and
productivity are better in warm humid climate with well distributed
rainfall (2000 mm) annual rainfall.

57. Soil
• Cassava grows on all types of soils, but saline, alkaline are not suitable.
Red sandy loam is mostly preferred with pH ranging from 6.5-8.
• It is relatively a drought tolerant crop. Cassava can recover from the
damage of slight moisture stress of shorter duration (short day plant).
• Crop is mainly grown in laterite soils Kerala and black and red soils in Tami
Nadu.

58. Planting Season
• As an irrigated crop, cassava can be planted during any
part of year, but December – January planting is better.
• As a rainfed crop, planting is done during April-May
before onset monsoon.

59. Propagation
• Stem cuttings, usually called as sets, for planting are taken
from disease free stakes of 8-10 months maturity having a
thickness of 2-3 cm diameter.
• Discard woody basal portion and tender top portion of
stem.
• Prepare sets of 15 – 20 cm length with a smooth circular
cut at the base and slanting cut at top for easy
identification of base and top.
• Sets prepared from stem stored for 15 days with leaves give
better sprouting.

60. Planting
• Wider spacing of 90 x 90 cm is recommended for
branching types (H-97 variety).
• Narrow space of 75 x 75 cm is for non-branching
types (H-165 variety).
• Two shoots per hill is found to be the best practice.
Planted by horizontal or vertical planting method.
• Cassava sticks can be planted at 45 degree angle or
vertically. Always put the sticks lower end in the
ground.

61. Manures & Fertilizers
• Cassava is a heavy feeder and crop is to be adequately
manures for getting high yield.
• Apply 125 tonnes of FYM/ha as basal dose.
• A fertilizer dose of 50 kg N, 50 kg P and 50 kg K/ha is
recommended at the time of land preparation.

62. Interculture Operations
• Pinching off excess sprouts emerging from sets is necessary in
cassava cultivation. This may be done 30-45 days after planting.
• First inter-culture operation may be done sufficciently deep at 45-
60 days after planting and a shallow inter-culture by way of
weeding or earthing up may be given one month after the first.
• Irrigating crop at 25% available moisture depletion level, could
double tuber yield compared to irrigated crop.

63. Irrigation
• Water stress condition should be avoided as it
is harmful to the crop. In the irrigated crop,
irrigation is given at 10-15 days interval.

64. Diseases
Brown leaf spot (Cercospora henningsi) 0.1% of benlate
Cassava bacterial blight (Xanthomonas
manihotis)
Grow resistant varieties, select healthy and
disease free planting material
Cassava mosaic disease Dimethoate or monocrotophos at 0.03%
Tuber rot (Phytophtora drechsleri) Remove infected tubers from field.
Incorporate Trichoderma viridae into soil.
Proper drainage

65. Insect - Pest
Soft scale (Aonidomytellus albus) 0.05% solution of Dimethoate for 10
minutes, spray malathion at 0.1% or
methyl parathion at 0.05%
Stem borer (Pterolophia melanura) Carbofuron 3G or phorate 10 G at 20-25
kg/ha in soil before planting, spray
carbaryl at 0.1%
Thrips (Retithrips syriacus) Spray Dimethoate at 0.05%
White fly ( Bemisia tubaci) Spray Dimethoate at 0.05%
Spiral white fly (Aleurodicus dispersus) Spray Azadirachtion or any need based
insecticide
Red spider mite (Tetranychus telarius) Dimethoate or methyl demeton at 0.05%,
monocrotophos at 0.03%
Root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne
incognta)
Deep dummer ploughing, crop rotation
with resistant crops grow resistant variety.

66. Harvesting
• The crop is ready for harvesting in
10-11 months after planting. Short
duration varieties can be harvested
in 6-7 months.
• Delayed harvest results in
deterioration of quality of tubers.
• Harvesting is usually done by
uprooting plants gently by holding
stem. After harvesting, stack stems
vertically in well aerated place for
use in subsequent planting.
• Yield is 25-3- t/ha for short
duration varieties and 30-4- t/ha
for other varieties.

67. Post harvest handling

68. Preparation of cassava starch
• Cassava starch was produced using traditional
method as described by Asiedu (1989).
• The freshly harvested cassava tubers were hand
peeled washed and then grated into pulp.
• The starch was washed out through a filter cloth and
was allowed to settle before decanting the residual
water.
• The resulting starch was then oven dried at 40°C for 3
hours
Balogun et al., 2012

69. Formulation of Enriched Tapioca Meal
• Cassava starch and defatted soy flour
meal were mixed at ratio 100:0, 95:5,
90:10, 85:15 and 80:20 respectively, to
produce the tapioca-soy flour mixture.
• The mixture was moistened with water
in the ratio 2:1 of water to flour, roasted
in a shallow pot at a low temperature in
order to aid gelatinization of the starch
and dried at 40°C for 4 hours.
• It was then packaged for analysis

70. RESEARCH STUDY

71. Fortification of tapioca meal with soy flour caused a significant increase in the protein
content of the samples. The sample with 20% soy flour had the highest protein and was
also rated highest in terms of overall acceptability by the panelists. Hence the addition of
soy flour to cassava starch is recommended up to 20% level.

72. Marketing
• The cassava tubers get ready for harvest within eight to twelve
months depending upon the variety.
• For domestic consumption, it is harvested in about six months after
planting.
• As far as the marketing system is concerned, there is no organized
market for cassava.
• Farmers either market it on their own or sell it through the contract
system.
• In the contract system, the contractor strikes a bargain with the
farmer and a price is fixed.
• Because of this, the effective price received is always less than what
the farmer gets by selling directly
Vigneshwara varmudy, 2014

73. Value-added products of cassava
1. Sago
2. Broken sago
3. Starch

74. Chips and flour
Wafer and papad
Raw tubers

75. THANK YOU