1. The formation and evolution of the Solar System began about 4.57 billion years ago with the gravitational collapse of a small part of a giant molecular cloud. Most of the collapsing mass collected in the center to form the Sun, while the rest flattened into a protoplanetary disk from which the planets, moons, asteroids and other small bodies formed. 2. According to the nebular hypothesis, Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago from accretion of planetary material in the solar nebula. Within the first 100-200 million years, early Earth had formed extensive oceans and seas. 3. Key events in the development of early Earth included the formation of its layered internal structure through the sinking of

1. ACSS-103
Prof. P. K. Mani
Age (within Lambda-CDM model)
13.799 ± 0.021 billion years
Diameter : 8.8 × 1026 m (93 Gly)
Mass 1053 kg

2. Origin of Earth,
Rock and Minerals weathering, soil formation factor and processes components of soils.
1. Soil profile, Soil physical properties, soil texture, texture classes, particle size
analysis, soil structure classification, soil aggregates, significance, soil consistency.
Soil crusting, bulk density and particle density of soils and porosity, their significance
and manipulation.
2. Soil composition, Soil Colour, Elementary knowledge of soil classification and soils of
India
3. Soil water, Retention and potential, soil moisture constants. Movement of soil water,
infiltration, percolation, Drainage, methods od determination of soil moisture.
4. Thermal properties of soils, Soil temperature, Soil air, Gaseous exchange, influence
of soil temperature and air on plant growth.
5. Soil colloids, properties, nature and significance
6. Layer silicate clays. Their genesis and sources of charges. Adsorption of ions, Ion
exchange, CEC and AEC. Factors influencing ion exchange and its significance.
Map of the observable universe with some of the notable astronomical objects known
today. The scale of length increases exponentially toward the right.

3. ‘Always Follow Your Dream
and Don’t let Anyone Take it
From You’ ---- Carson
Dedicated to Alyssa Carson
In 2033 she will go for Mars Mission

4. The universe began about 14.4 billion years
ago
The Big Bang Theory states that, in the
beginning, the universe was all in one place
All of its matter and energy were squished into
an infinitely small point, a singularity
Then it exploded
The tremendous
amount of material
blown out by the
explosion eventually
formed the stars and
galaxies
After about 10 billion
years, our solar system
began to form
Origin of the Universe

5. In cosmogony, the Nebular
Hypothesis is the currently accepted
argument about how a Solar System
can form
The Nebular Hypothesis
A large gas cloud (nebula)
begins to condense
Most of the mass is in the
center, there is turbulence
in the outer parts
(Kant and Laplace, 1755)
The widely accepted modern variant of the nebular
theory is the solar nebular disk model (SNDM)
or solar nebular mode
The Orion Nebula is a diffuse nebula situated
in the Milky Way, being south of Orion's Belt in
the constellation of Orion. It is one of the
brightest nebulae, and is visible to the naked

6. 1. The standard model for the formation of the Solar system (including the Earth)
is the solar nebula hypothesis.
2. In this model, the Solar System formed from a large, rotating cloud of
interstellar dust and gas called the solar nebula. It was composed
of hydrogen and helium created shortly after the Big Bang 13.8 Ga (billion years
ago. Giga annum,109 yrs) and heavier elements ejected by supernovae.
(A supernova or supernovas,is a powerful and luminous stellar explosion.)
3. About 4.5 Ga, the nebula began a contraction that may have been triggered
by the shock wave from a nearby supernova. A shock wave would have also
made the nebula rotate.
4. As the cloud began to accelerate, its angular momentum, gravity,
and inertia flattened it into a protoplanetary disk perpendicular to its axis of
rotation.
5. Small perturbations due to collisions and the angular momentum of other
large debris created the means by which kilometer-sized protoplanets
began to form, orbiting the nebular center.

7. 8. Meanwhile, in the outer part of the nebula gravity caused matter to condense
around density perturbations and dust particles, and the rest of the
protoplanetary disk began separating into rings. In a process known as
runaway accretion, successively larger fragments of dust and debris
clumped together to form planets.
7. After more contraction, a T Tauri star ignited and evolved into the Sun.
6. The center of the nebula, not having much angular momentum, collapsed
rapidly, the compression heating it until nuclear fusion of H into He began.
(T Tauri stars (TTS) are a class of variable stars that are less than about ten million
years old. This class is named after the prototype, T Tauri, a young star in the Taurus
star-forming region)
(An accretion disk is a structure (often a circumstellar disk) formed by diffuse material
in orbital motion around a massive central body. The central body is typically
a star. Friction causes orbiting material in the disk to spiral inward towards the central
body. Gravitational and frictional forces compress and raise the temperature of the
material, causing the emission of electromagnetic radiation )
Accretion is the accumulation of particles into a massive object by gravitationally
attracting more matter, typically gaseous matter, in an accretion disk. Most astronomical
objects, such as galaxies, stars, and planets, are formed by accretion processes.

8. 9. Earth formed in this manner
about 4.54 billion years ago
(with an uncertainty of 1%)
and was largely completed
within 10–20 million years.
The solar wind of the newly
formed T Tauri star cleared
out most of the material in
the disk that had not already
condensed into larger bodies.
10.The same process is
expected to produce
accretion disks around
virtually all newly forming
stars in the universe,
some of which yield planets.
Chamberlin–Moulton planetesimal hypothesis

9. Birth of the Solar System
11.The proto-Earth grew by accretion until its interior was hot enough to melt
the heavy, siderophile metals. Having higher densities than the silicates,
these metals sank. This so-called iron catastrophe resulted in the
separation of a primitive mantle and a (metallic) core only 10 million years
after the Earth began to form, producing the layered structure of
Earth and setting up the formation of Earth's magnetic field.
12. J.A. Jacobs (1953) was the first to suggest that Earth's inner core—a
solid center distinct from the liquid outer core—is freezing and growing
out of the liquid outer core due to the gradual cooling of Earth's interior
(about 100°C per billion years i.e.100 crore years).

10. Nebular Hypothesis
The formation and
evolution of the Solar
System began about 4.57
billion years ago with the
gravitational collapse of a
small part of a giant
molecular cloud. Most of
the collapsing mass
collected in the center,
forming the Sun, while
the rest flattened into a
protoplanetary disk out
of which the planets,
moons, asteroids, and
other small Solar System
bodies formed.
Hubble image of
protoplanetary discs
in the Orion Nebula

11. The turbulent eddies collect matter
measuring meters across
Small chunks grow and collide,
eventually becoming large aggregates
of gas and solid chunks
The Nebular Hypothesis
Pictures from the Hubble Space
Telescope show newborn stars
emerging from dense, compact
pockets of interstellar gas called
evaporating gaseous globules

12. In this diagram, time passes from left to right, so at any given time, the universe is
represented by a disk-shaped "slice" of the diagram cold dark matter,
Big Bang Diagram

13. Brief History of the Universe
•The Planck time: 10-43 seconds. After this time gravity can be considered to be a classical background in which particles and fields evolve
following quantum mechanics. A region about 10-33 cm across is homogeneous and isotropic, The temperature is T=1032K.
•Inflation begins. In Linde's chaotic inflation model inflation starts at the Planck time, although it could start when the temperature falls to
point at which the symmetry of Grand Unified Theory (GUT) is spontaneously broken. This occurs when the temperature is around 1027 to
1028K at 10-35 seconds after the Big Bang.
•Inflation ends. The time is 10-33 seconds, the temperature is again 1027 to 1028K as the vacuum energy density that drove inflation is converted
into heat. At the end of inflation the expansion rate is so fast that the apparent age of the Universe [1/H] is only 10-35 seconds. Because of
inflation, the homogeneous regions from the Planck time are at least 100 cm across, a growth by a factor greater than 1035 since the Planck time.
However, quantum fluctuations during inflation also create a pattern of low amplitude inhomogeneities with a random pattern having equal
power on all scales.
•Baryogenesis: a small difference between the reaction rates for matter and antimatter leads to a mix with about 100,000,001 protons for every
100,000,000 antiprotons (and 100,000,000 photons).
•Universe grows and cools until 0.0001 seconds after the Big Bang with temperature about T=1013 K. Antiprotons annihilate with protons
leaving only matter, but with a very large number of photons per surviving proton and neutron.
•Universe grows and cools until 1 second after the Big Bang, with temperature T=1010 K. The weak interaction freezes out with a proton/neutron
ratio of about 6. The homogeneous patch is now at least 1019.5 cm across.
•Universe grows and cools until 100 seconds after the Big Bang. The temperature is 1 billion degrees, 109 K. Electrons and positrons
annihilate to make more photons, while protons and neutrons combine to make deuterons. Almost all of the deuterons combine to make helium.
The final result is about 3/4 hydrogen, 1/4 helium by mass; deuteron/proton ratio 30 parts per million. There are about 2 billion photons per
proton or neutron.
•One month after the Big Bang the processes that convert the radiation field to a blackbody spectrum become slower than the expansion of the
Universe, so the spectrum of the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) preserves information back to this time.
•Matter density equals radiation density 56,000 years after the Big Bang. The temperature is 9000 K. Dark matter inhomogeneities can start to
collapse.
•Protons and electrons combine to form neutral hydrogen. Universe becomes transparent. Temperature is T=3000 K, time is 380,000 years after
the Big Bang. Ordinary matter can now fall into the dark matter clumps. The CMB travels freely from this time until now, so the CMB
anisotropy gives a picture of the Universe at this time.
•The first stars form 100-200 million years after the Big Bang, and reionize the Universe.
•The first supernovae explode and spread carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, silicon, magnesium, iron, and so on up through uranium throughout the
Universe.
•Galaxies form as many clumps of dark matter, stars and gas merge together.
•Clusters of galaxies form.
•The Solar System and Sun form 4.6 billion years ago.
•Now: The time is 13.7 Gyr after the Big Bang, and the temperature is T=2.725 K. The homogeneous patch is at least 1029 cm across, which
is larger than observable Universe.

14. •where the supposed singularity came from
•what caused the initial expansion, or how or
why it occurred
•that something actually exploded
•anything about the origin of life (though origins
of matter, energy, and structure are considered)
•that an external creator is required (though this
is embraced by many theists)

15. Earth is ~ 4,570,000,000 years old
The Age of the Earth
Meteorites give us access to debris left over
from the formation of the solar system
We can date meteorites using radioactive
isotopes and their decay products
Homogenous and Very hot
Early Earth
By 3.5 billion years ago, the Earth also had
extensive oceans and seas of salt water, which
contained many dissolved elements, such as iron

16. Composition of Earth crust (% by weight)
Eight elements are abundant – 98.6%
O and Si contributes : 74.32% (3/4th)

17. 17
Sl. No Scientist Contribution
1. V.V. Dokuchaev Father of Soil Science / Father of Modern Pedology /
Genetic system of classification / Zonality concept
2. J. W. Leather Father of Soil Science in India
Father of Agricultural Chemistry in India
3. Bousingault Father of field plot technique
4. Liebig Law of minimum ; Law of restitution
Disproved humus theory; Law of limiting nutrient
Father of Agricultural chemistry; Father of fertilizer chemistry
5. Blackman Law of limiting factor
6. Warrington Essentiality of B
7. Mohr & Van Baren 5 Weathering stages (Initial, Juvenile, Virile, Senile and Final)
8. Guy Smith Father of Soil Taxonomy
9. Whitney Nutrient bin
10. Nicholas Increase weight of plant during growth
Functional nutrient term (or) Metabolic nutrient term
11. Helmont Increase weight of willow shoot to water
Water is sole nutrient for plant

18. 18
12. Glauber Growth of plants to saltpeter (KNO3)
13. Jackson et al Weathering Index
14. Jenny S = f (cl, b, r, p, t) equation for soil formation
15. Joffe Divided soil forming factors into active and
passive
16. Milne Catena word
17. Buchanan Laterite word
18. Thomas Graham Colloid term (1861)
19 Thompson and
Thomas way
CEC (Cation Exchange Capacity) concept
20. Sorenson (1909) pH term
21. Silen pE concept
22. Simonson Basic pedogenic processes (Additions or gains,
Losses, Transformation and Translocation)
23. Dachaufour Lessivage term
24. Daniel Hillel Father of Soil physics

19. List of International Soil Scientists
1. Van Helmont (1577 – 1644)
2. Theoder De Saussure
3. John Woodward (1665-1728)
4. J. B. Boussingault (1802 – 1882)
5. J.V. Liebig (1803 – 1873)
6. J. B. Lawes & J.H. Gilbert
7. J.T. Way (1856)
8. R. Warrington (1876)
9. E.W. Hilgard (1860)
10. V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903)
11. K.D. Glinka (1914)
12. C.F. Marbut (1927)
13. Hens Jenny (1941)
Van Helmont De Saussure
Pioneers, photosynth
Boussingault
Justus von Liebig
hydroponics
Woodward
superphosphate that
would mark the
beginnings of the
chemical fertilizer
Gilbert
J. B. Lawes
R. Warrington

20. 20
S.P. Raychaudhuri T.D. Biswas
J. L. Sehgal R. V.Tamhane
N.R. Dhar
J.N. Mukherjee
S. K. Mukherjee
Internationally acclaimed Indian Soil Scientists