Life in the U.S. after WWII

1. AMST 185
Spring Semester
Dr. Renae Mitchell

4. Immigration:
• The first groups of Asian immigrants reaching Hawaii
— a U.S. territory — and the U.S. in the late 19th
century faced racial prejudice.
• Restrictive laws in Hawaii and the U.S. specifically
limited the rights of Asian immigrants to own property
and become citizens.
• Before 1907, most Japanese immigrants to the U.S.
settled on the West Coast and excelled in the
cultivation of marginal lands. As successful farmers,
fruit growers, fishermen, and small businessmen,
their ability to do well with few resources made them
objects of envy by some members of the white
community.
• Set apart by their physical appearance, they became
further isolated from the white mainstream as envy
fed racial hostility.
Japanese sugarcane farm workers in Hawaii

6. Russo-Japan War, 1904-5
• Once the Russo-Japanese War began, Japan was often in
the headlines. Many Japanese youths in Sonoma County
returned home to fight the Czar.
• During this war, a movement began to demote Japanese
immigrants to the same legal status as the Chinese.
• 1905: San Francisco labor unions created the Japanese
and Korean Exclusion League to expand the ban on
Chinese "coolie" labor to include other Asian workers.
• Japan's victory over Russia in 1905 fed American
anxieties: it wasn't only the farm laborers to fear, but
the possibility Japan had an industrial base that could
undercut U.S. exports to Asia, along with a navy capable
of challenging the United States militarily."If Japan Should Attack Us" Sunday feature in the San
Francisco Call, Sept. 23, 1906

8. Gentleman’s Agreement of 1907
• U.S. would cease restrictions on Japanese
immigration.
• The Empire of Japan would restrict
emigration to the U.S.

10. There was resistance to the move
toward segregation:
On October 11, 1906, the San
Francisco Board of Education
ordered that Japanese students in
the city’s public schools henceforth
be taught in racially segregated
schools. The announcement
sparked a diplomatic crisis between
Japan and the United States,
prompting President Theodore
Roosevelt to send Commerce and
Labor Secretary Victor Metcalf to
San Francisco to persuade the
school board to change its
decision. The cartoon’s caption
beseeches the cabinet officer not
to embarrass the Roosevelt
Administration.

11. ANGEL ISLAND
Because of its isolation in the harbor (near San Francisco),
Angel Island was considered ideal for a detention facility,
which operated from 1910 to 1940 and processed over
one million immigrants from eighty different countries.

12. Early Twentieth Century
Johnson-Reed Act of 1917:
• The first widely restrictive immigration law.
• Driven by the uncertainty generated over
national security during World War I.
• Implemented a literacy test requiring basic
reading comprehension in any language.
• Increased tax paid by new immigrants on
arrival; allowed immigration officials to make
decisions over whom to exclude.
• Excluded anyone born in “Asiatic Barred Zone”
except, briefly, for Japanese and Filipinos.

13. U.S. immigration officials examine Japanese immigrants aboard a ship
docked at Angel Island Immigration Station in 1931.

16. Background
• Many images from this period illustrate the
racial prejudice and fear that upset the
delicate balance between the rights of the
citizen and the power of the state.

17. From Dec. 22, 1941 issue of Life Magazine
From the Article:
"Pictures: The Country's Anger" (1941)
"[The cartoonists'] on the
editorial pages of the nation's
newspapers mirrored the …
resentment of the country
against the treachery and
arrogance of the Japanese. The
whole cartoon aspect of the Jap
changed overnight. Before that
sudden Sunday the Jap was an
oily little man, amiable but
untrustworthy, more funny than
dangerous. But the Jap enemy
was different...He was swarthy,
evil and ominous...His toothy
mouth was filled with oversized
incisors..."

18. Background
• During the opening months of World War II,
almost 120,000 Japanese Americans, two-
thirds of them citizens of the United States,
were forced out of their homes and into
detention camps established by the U.S.
government.
• Many would spend the next three years living
under armed guard, behind barbed wire.

19. Moving Out
• The immediate order to move to the assembly
centers left little time for packing, selling
household goods, or locating safe storage for
precious personal possessions.
• Allowed to take only what they could carry,
Japanese Americans headed for camps that
had no room for toys, precious heirlooms, or
other personal possessions. Family pets were
left behind with memories of the old
neighborhood.

20. Boxes/bundles stacked outside WCCA Control Station
Original caption: "2301 Bush Street, San Francisco. Baggage piled
on sidewalk across from WCCA Control Station."

22. "We were told to take
only as much as we
could carry in our two
hands. How much
could you carry in
your two hands? One
big suitcase...well,
how can you really
manage with a big
stuffed suitcase?"
— Anonymous
Quote from the Smithsonian Oral
History Archives.

23. • For thousands of Japanese-American homeowners
and small businessmen, moving out also meant
selling out — quickly, and at an enormous loss.
• The total dollar value of the property loss has been
estimated at as much as 1.3 billion dollars.
• Net income losses may have been as high as 2.7
billion dollars (both in 1983 dollars).
Grocery store front: "SOLD" & "I AM AN AMERICAN"
Caption: "Oakland, California. Following evacuation
orders, this store…was closed. The owner, a University of
California graduate of Japanese descent, placed the "I
AM AN AMERICAN" sign … on Dec. 8, the day after Pearl
Harbor. Evacuees of Japanese ancestry will be housed in
War Relocation Authority centers for the duration."
"WANTO ("East Bay") grocery store at the time of
eviction. Oakland, CA, 1942."
photo by Dorothea Lange , March 13, 1942

24. Moving Out
"We were renting a house,
so we weren't able to store
too much. People came to
buy things. We sold our
furniture. Stuff like that
you have to sell; you can't
take it away with you. You
are limited to two
suitcases—what you can
carry. We just took
bedding, clothing. That's
about all."
Masao and Sada Mori, in
Beyond Words: Images from
America's Concentration Camps

26. The Barracks
"It is not the American way to have
children growing up behind barbed
wire and under the scrutiny of armed
guards..." —Dillon S. Myer, Director of the
WRA, one year anniversary statement of the
WRA
Minidoka Relocation Center, Hunt, Idaho. Christmas, 1944.

27. • By the end of 1942, more than 120,000 men,
women, and children of Japanese ancestry
had been uprooted from their homes.
• Their final destinations would be one of 10
camps — "instant cities" — constructed by the
War Relocation Authority in seven states.
• Deeply isolated from the rest of America,
these "evacuees" — 65 percent of whom were
American citizens — would spend up to four
years imprisoned.

28. Original caption:
"Granada Relocation Center, Amache, Colorado. Every day is
wash day in a relocation center; the impromptu lines generally
erected in the area to the rear of each pair of barracks buildings
find constant use."
© nperskine 2013

29. © nperskine 2013

30. Life in the Camps

31. Life at the Camps
Civic associations, religious
observances, Boy Scout
troops, Parent Teacher
Associations, dances, little
theater companies and
athletic competitions helped
to ease the burdens of life in
the shadow of the
watchtower.
"Ping-pong, badminton, and cards
were the important indoor games.
Basketball, tennis, golf, football,
and baseball were the outdoor
games-baseball was the favorite
sport."
—Mine Okubo, Citizen 13660

32. Citizen 13660
How does art portray life in the camps vs.
photography? Is there a difference? If so, what is
that difference?

33. Citizen 13660
Observing camp activities from a rooftop, Tanforan
Assembly Center, San Bruno, California, 1942

34. Citizen 13660
“Cleaning Stable for Bedroom”
San Bruno, California, 1942

35. Citizen 13660
“Mine and Benji depart from their home”
Berkeley, California, 1942

36. Citizen 13660
Mine Okubo, fixes up living quarters, a former
horse stall, with her brother, Benji, at Tanforan
Assembly Center, California during World War II.
1942

37. Citizen 13660

38. Citizen 13660: Response
Okubo’s images capture moments that aren’t
preserved in photographs. Do you think they give a
more nuanced view of life in the camps? Or are
photographs more effective?
Americanization classes held at the camps:
Dorothea Lange

39. Loyalty
Japanese-American internees
struggled with the dehumanizing
effects of being imprisoned,
working to create as normal a life
as possible behind barbed wire.
But when the same government
that questioned their loyalty to
the United States simultaneously
recruited internees to serve in the
Army, the result was catalytic.
Communities divided, splitting
generations, families, and
ideologies.
Some internees chose to defy the
United States government. Others
chose to join its forces on the
battlefields.

40. After Pearl Harbor, citizens of
Japanese ancestry were
classified 4-C, enemy aliens.
In December 1943, it was
announced that all Nisei
would be reclassified and
eligible for the draft.
A total of 2,800 inductees
were drawn from the camps
in 1944-45. Many young men
viewed this as a
reinstatement of their rights
as citizens & welcomed the
opportunity to serve.

41. Military Service
Some 25,000 Japanese
Americans served in U.S.
military units during
World War II. The valor of
these Americans, many of
whom had family and
friends living behind
barbed wire, was
extraordinary. Their
combat record aided the
post-war acceptance of
Japanese Americans in
American society and
helped many people to
recognize the injustice of
wartime internment.

42. 100th and 442nd divisions
After fighting their way
up the Italian
peninsula, the 100th
would eventually be
joined by the 442nd
Regimental Combat Team,
a second segregated
Nisei military unit. The
100th/442nd saw action
in Italy, Belgium,
southern France, and
Germany. At war's end,
680 members of the unit
had been killed in
action, 67 were missing,
and 3,600 Purple Hearts
including 500 Oak Leaf
Clusters had been
awarded for wounds
suffered in combat.
Their motto was, "Go for
Broke."

43. Justice
• By 1946, Japanese Americans
were released from the
internment camps but the
injustice was not forgotten.
• Many members of the Japanese-
American community were
determined to create public
understanding of the injustices
they suffered and to resolve the
basic Constitutional issues
related to their wartime
incarceration.
• More than forty years later, the
U.S. government issued a formal
apology to the Japanese-
American community, and
passed the Civil Liberties Act in
1988.
December 17, 1944: Proclamation 21
ended mass imprisonment of Japanese
resident aliens and American citizens of
Japanese ancestry.
The next day, the U.S. Supreme Court
ruled that claims of military necessity
could not justify holding American
citizens against their will.
This ruling would have eventually ended the
relocation program, and government officials
were well aware the ruling was coming when it
issued the proclamation.

44. “That which happened to the Japanese on the West
Coast must not happen again... to any minority
group... I am convinced that if some form of token
justice is not done to the wronged loyal Japanese of
the U.S., that the U. S. will be the sufferer in the long
run. Not from the Japanese-rather from internal
instability... A frank admission and attempt at
retribution will give America more than a thousand
'slurring-overs'... I yet maintain, that in Truth there is
strength... a strength that will stand the test of time
and endure for the good of all."
—Letter from Sgt. Chester Tanaka to friends in St. Louis, 1944

45. Court Cases: Gordon Hirabayashi
Gordon Hirabayashi: Violation of Exclusion Order
“I was charged with uh, violation of uh,
exclusion order. And then, subsequently I
was given a count two, uh, curfew violation
by my own admission. They said: 'If you feel
this way, what'd you do about the curfew?' I
said: 'Well, uh what were you doing the last
coupla' nights, were you out after eight?'
And he says 'Yeah.' And I said: 'Well, so was
I.' And he said: 'Oh, then you violated the
curfew.' And he put me down. So those were
the charges against me. The uh, instruction
(I'm condensing this) but the instruction of
the judge to the jury uh, as they were to
leave was: 'You can forget all that
Constitutional discussion by the defense. The
Western Defense Command order is: That all
persons of Japanese ancestry both alien and
non-alien must abide by these orders. You
are to determine first of all whether he is of
Japanese ancestry. If he is, did he abide by
these orders?' And, all of those questions
were admitted by me.”
1942: twenty-three year old
Gordon Hirabayashi disobeyed
curfew restrictions as an act of
civil disobedience. Tried in
October 1942, he was found
guilty and sentenced to
prison. The U.S. Supreme
Court heard his case in 1944,
and upheld the verdict of the
lower court.

46. Court Cases: Korematsu vs. United States
Facts of the case
• During World War II, Presidential Executive
Order 9066 gave the military authority to
exclude citizens of Japanese ancestry from
areas deemed critical to national defense
and vulnerable to espionage. Korematsu
remained in San Leandro, California and
violated the Civilian Exclusion Order.
Case: Did the President and Congress go
beyond their war powers by implementing
exclusion and restricting the rights of
Americans of Japanese descent?
Conclusion
• 6–3 DECISION FOR UNITED STATES
The exclusion order applying to Americans
of Japanese descent was lawful
American civil rights activist
who objected to internment
of Japanese Americans
during World War II. When
the order to move from his
home to a prison camp was
announced, Korematsu
instead challenged the
orders and became a
fugitive.

47. George Takei
• A survivor of the internment camps who continues
to work as an activist on a number of human rights
issues.
• Takei also works to make sure that Americans today
do not forget the fact that the U.S. interned its
citizens in prison camps seventy-five years ago.
• Takei produced a musical named Allegiance that
was performed on Broadway.

48. George Takei
• Now let’s listen to Takei’s experience of internment
in a Ted Talk that he gave in 2014.

49. Chinese Immigration
Three major waves:
• 19th-century Transcontinental Railroad (1862-)
– Chinese immigrants were escaping the Opium Wars.
– 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act: a political response to
anti-Chinese public attitudes and pressure from
labor unions, & barred Chinese from U.S. citizenship.
• Faced intense discrimination.
“The Chinese Must Go, But Who Keeps Them?” – 11 May 1878 by George Frederick Keller for The
San Francisco Illustrated Wasp

50. Chinese Immigration
19th-century Transcontinental Railroad (1862-)
• Because of the gold rush, the push to expand
westward was urgent. The railroad helped to
make this happen.
• Before the railroad, it took six months and cost
$1000 to travel between California and New
York. After completion, travel cost $150 and took
one week. For the first time, U.S. Americans
could freely travel from coast to coast, which
radically changed business and pleasure travel.
• Construction of the Railroad took six years
almost entirely by hand.

51. Chinese Immigration
• Immigrant labor was critical to completing the
enormous project within a short amount of time.
• May 10, 1869, Promontory Summit, Utah: a
golden spike was hammered into the final tie.
Ging Cui, Wong Fook, & Lee Shao, 3 of the 8 Chinese workers who put the last rail in place, at
the 50th Anniversary celebration of completion of the transcontinental railroad, Ogden, Utah.

52. Chinese Immigration
• In the beginning, workers were being recruited by
both railroads (the Central Pacific and Union
Pacific).
• The majority of workers were of European
descent—mostly Irish. But, a dearth of Caucasian
workers led one of the railroad owners, Charles
Crocker, to suggest they look to the Chinese
migrant population for more laborers.
• His suggestion was met with skepticism but it
proved to be a linchpin in the successful
completion of the railroad.

53. Chinese Immigration
• In the aftermath of the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act Angel
Island was built, and thus was unlike Ellis Island.
• 175,000 Chinese and about 60,000 Japanese immigrants
were detained.
• Closed in 1940 due to fire.
Angel Island Immigration Station, c. 1915-20. Photo from National Archives, Washington DC.

54. Chinese Immigration
• Due to the strong sentiment to limit Asian immigration,
Japanese and Chinese immigrants were held in detention
from two weeks to three years.
• While in detention, some detainees wrote poems on the
walls.
Poetry written by Chinese immigrants, carved into the wall of the detention barracks at Angel
Island Immigration Station. Photo from: The Jon B. Lovelace Collection of California Photographs
in Carol M. Highsmith's America Project/ Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

55. Chinese Immigration
• Impact of the Exclusion Act of 1882
–The 1890 census reported 107,488
Chinese in the US
–1900 census—89,863 Chinese in the US
–1910 census—71,531 Chinese remaining

56. Chinese Immigration
Three major waves:
• Second Wave: driven by China’s Civil War
between 1945-9, which was followed by a great
famine and then the Cultural Revolution in 1966.
– Chinese were seen in a more positive light than in
previous years due to alliance in WWII (versus
Japan).
– Even so, discrimination was rampant and compelled
Chinese immigrants to form insular communities
(“Chinatown” communities).

57. Chinese Immigration
• Second Wave: the Cultural Revolution led to
China’s transformation to a Communist country
during the period of the Cold War between the
U.S. and the Soviet Union.
– Factional struggles affected all areas of life for the
Chinese, and led to country-wide violent struggles.
– Millions of people were persecuted through abuses:
public humiliation, arbitrary imprisonment, torture,
hard labor, sustained harassment, seizure of
property, sometimes execution.
– A large segment of the population was forcibly
displaced, most notably the transfer of urban youth
to rural regions.

58. Chinese Immigration
Three major waves:
• Third Wave: China’s Cultural Revolution led to an
economic downturn in China in the 1980’s.
–Many young Chinese students were sent to
the U.S. for their education, leading to an
influx of students and professional in this
wave of immigration.
–This wave of highly educated immigrants
would lead to the “Model Minority” myth.

59. Model Minority
A stereotype of Asian ethnicity:
• The idea that Asians and Asian Americans are
“inherently smart.”
• Imposes stigma on Asian and Asian-American
individuals.
• Disregards the range socioeconomic and
educational disparities among the diverse range
of communities considered Asian-American.

60. Generational Difference
Gish Jenn:
• A prolific writer who focuses largely on the
immigrant experience.
• How does the history of Asian Americans inform
this story?