Leadership & Motivation Theories by Operational Excellence Consulting

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This presentation is a compilation of PowerPoint descriptions and
diagrams used to convey 30+ different leadership and motivation
theories and models.
Leadership &
Motivation Theories
Descriptions and Diagrams of Leadership and
Motivation Theories & Models

diagrams used to convey 23 different leadership models,
philosophies and styles.
Leadership Theories
Descriptions and Diagrams of Leadership
Models, Philosophies and Styles
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Contents
Leadership Models
1. Carlyle & Galton Trait Theory
2. Ralph Stogdill Trait Theory
3. Kouzes & Posner Trait Theory
4. Douglas McGregor’s XY Theory
5. Blake-Mouton’s Managerial Grid
6. Kurt-Lewin’s Three Styles Model
7. Bolman & Deal’s Four Frame Model
8. Fiedler’s Contingency Model
9. Hersey-Blanchard’s Situational
Leadership® Model
10. Robert House’s Path-Goal Theory
11. Tannenbaum-Schmidt’s Leadership
Behavior Continuum Model
12. John Adair’s Action-Centered Leadership
Model
13. Kouzes & Posner Five Leadership
Practices
14. James Scouller’s Three Levels of
Leadership Model
Leadership Philosophies
1. Servant Leadership
2. Authentic Leadership
3. Ethical Leadership
4. Values-based Leadership
5. French & Raven’s Five Bases of Power
Leadership Styles
1. Bureaucratic Leadership
2. Charismatic Leadership
3. Narcissistic Leadership
4. Transformation Leadership &
Transactional Leadership

Differences between leadership and management
Management Leadership
• Concerned with responsibility for
things (e.g. budget, IT, advertising,
equipment, etc.)
• Does not necessarily include
responsibility for people
• Lots of the managing duties may be
delegated through others
• Management may be seen as a
function or responsibility (a subset)
within leadership, but not vice-versa
• Involves (leading) a group of people
• Definitely always includes
responsibility for people
• Good leadership always includes
responsibility for managing
• Leader is responsible for ensuring
there is appropriate and effective
management for the situation or
group concerned

Leadership framework
Leadership
Styles
Leadership
Philosophies
Leadership
Models
• Teach us how to be effective
leaders
• Contain/Enable processes
and measureable standards
• Supported by diagrams and
graphs
• Like a toolbox or a kit of parts
• Focus on leadership
behaviors
• Influenced by
leader’s personality
• Real-life forms of
leadership
• Like a tool in the
leadership models
toolbox
• Based on values or
moral position
• Expressed through
ideas and words
• May underpin a
model or style
• Like a compass or
code

Carlyle and Galton Trait Theory
Leader
Followers
Height
Intelligence
Extroversion
Fluency
Other traits
Resides in
people
Trait Theory of Leadership
Leadership =
Source: Northouse, 2007

Douglas McGregor's XY Theory

Blake-Mouton’s Managerial Grid
High
HighLow
Low
Concern for Results
ConcernforPeople
Country Club
Management
Team
Management
Impoverished
Management
Middle-of-the-Road
Management
Authority-
Compliance
Management

Kurt Lewin’s Three Styles Model
Participative
Authoritarian
Delegative
The
Perfect
Leader

Tannenbaum-Schmidt’s Leadership Behavior Continuum
Single Leader Shared Leadership
Boss-Centered Leadership Subordinate-Centered Leadership
Use of Authority
by the Manager
Area of Freedom
for Subordinates
1
Leader
makes
decision and
announces
it.
2
Leader
decides and
‘sells’
benefits of
decision.
3
Leader
decides but
presents
thinking,
inviting
exploration.
4
Leader
presents
tentative
decision,
prepared to
change.
5
Leader
presents
problem,
gets
suggestions,
makes
decision.
6
Leader
defines
problem,
asks group
to make the
decision.
7
Leader
allows group
to define
problem and
make
decision.

Fiedler’s Contingency Model
Fiedler’s Contingency Model
Situation Favorableness Most Effective Style
High = Task-oriented leader
Intermediate = Relationship-oriented leader
Low = Task-oriented leader

House’s Path-Goal Theory – Workplace/Follower characteristics and
four leadership styles
Leadership
Style
Workplace Characteristics Follower Characteristics
Directive
 Unstructured interesting tasks
 Clear, formal authority
 Good group cohesion
 Inexperienced followers
 They believe they lack power
 They want leader to direct them
Supportive
 Simpler, more predictable tasks
 Unclear or weak formal authority
 Poor group cohesion
 Experienced, confident followers
 They believe they have power
 They reject close control
Participative
 Unstructured, complex tasks
 Formal authority could be either
clear or unclear
 Group cohesion could either be
good or poor
 They believe they have power
 They reject close control, preferring
to exercise power over their work
Achievement-
oriented
 Unstructured, complex or
unpredictable tasks
 Clear, formal authority
 Group cohesion could either be
good or poor
 They think they lack some power
 They accept the idea of the leader
setting their goals and have a lot of
respect for the leader

Hersey-Blanchard’s Situational Leadership® Model
High Relationship,
Low Task
High Task,
High Relationship
LOW HIGH
LOWHIGH
Ability
Relationship
Low Relationship,
Low Task
High Task,
Low Relationship
Delegating Telling
Participating Selling
Task
Willingness
S1
S2
S4
S3
Source: Hersey-Blanchard

The Hersey-Blanchard model maps each leadership style to each
maturity level, as shown below:
Follower
‘Situation’
Leadership
Style Emphasis
Most
Appropriate
Leadership
Style
Quick
Description
Maturity
Level
Unable and
Unwilling
High task – low
relationship
S1:
Telling/directing
Instruction,
direction,
autocratic
M1: Low maturity
Unable but
Willing
High task – high
relationship
S2:
Selling/coaching
Persuasion,
encouragement,
incentive
M2: Medium
maturity, limited
skills
Able but Unwilling
Low task – high
relationship
S3:
Participating/supp
orting
Involvement,
consultation,
teamwork
M3: Medium
maturity, higher
skills but lacking
confidence
Able and Willing
Low task – low
relationship
S4: Delegating
Trust,
empowerment,
responsibility
M4: High maturity
Source: Hersey-Blanchard

Bolman & Deal’s Four Frames descriptions and differences
DESCRIPTION
Structural
This Frame focuses on the obvious 'how' of change. It's mainly a task-orientated
Frame. It concentrates on strategy; setting measurable goals; clarifying tasks,
responsibilities and reporting lines; agreeing metrics and deadlines; and creating
systems and procedures.
Human Resource
The HR Frame places more emphasis on people's needs. It chiefly focuses on
giving employees the power and opportunity to perform their jobs well, while at
the same time, addressing their needs for human contact, personal growth, and
job satisfaction.
Political
The Political Frame addresses the problem of individuals and interest groups
having sometimes conflicting (often hidden) agendas, especially at times when
budgets are limited and the organization has to make difficult choices. In this
Frame you will see coalition-building, conflict resolution work, and power-base
building to support the leader's initiatives.
Symbolic
The Symbolic Frame addresses people's needs for a sense of purpose and
meaning in their work. It focuses on inspiring people by making the
organization's direction feel significant and distinctive. It includes creating a
motivating vision, and recognizing superb performance through company
celebrations.
Bolman & Deal Four Frames Model

John Adair’s Action-Centered Leadership Model
IndividualTeam
Task
Source: John Adair
• Setting objectives
• Planning tasks
• Allocating of
responsibilities
• Setting performance
standards
• Coaching
• Counseling
• Developing
• Motivating
• Communication
• Team building
• Motivation
• Discipline
John Adair’s Action-Centered
Leadership Model

Kouzes and Posner’s Five Leadership Practices Model
Encourage the
Heart
Enabling Others
to Act
Challenge the
Process
Inspire a Shared
Vision
Model the Way
Five
Leadership
Practices
Source: Kouzes & Posner
Five Leadership Practices Model

KEY BEHAVIORS
 Set the example by behaving in ways that reflect the shared values
 Achieve small wins that build confidence, commitment and
consistent progress.
 Envision an uplifting, exciting, meaningful future.
 Enlist others in a common vision by appealing to their values,
interests, hopes and dreams.
 Search out challenging opportunities to change, grow, innovate and
improve.
 Experiment, take risks and learn from any mistakes.
 Foster collaboration by promoting cooperative goals and building
trust.
 Strengthen people’s ability by delegating power, developing their
competence and offering visible support.
 Recognize individual contributions to the success of the project.
 Celebrate team accomplishments regularly.
Summary of Five Leadership Practices
1. Model the Way
2. Inspire a Shared
Vision
3. Challenge the
Process
4. Enable Others to
Act
5. Encourage the
Heart
Five Leadership Practices Model
Source: Kouzes & Posner

Scouller’s Three Levels of Leadership (3P) Model
Source: James Scouller
Three Levels of Leadership (3P) Model
Public
Private
Personal
Outer
levels
Inner
level

Key Qualities for Values-Based Leaders
Key Qualities
for
Values-Based
Leaders
Humility
Self-
confidence
Balance
Self-reflection
Source: Adapted from Harry Jensen Kramer

French & Raven’s Five Forms of Power
• One of the most notable studies on power was conducted by social
psychologists John French and Bertram Raven, in 1959. They
identified five bases of power, which they grouped under two
headings:
French and Raven's Five Sources of Power
Positional
Power
• Legitimate Power – This comes from the belief that a person has
the formal right to make demands, and to expect compliance and
obedience from others.
• Reward Power – This results from one person's ability to
compensate another for compliance.
• Coercive Power – This comes from the belief that a person can
punish others for noncompliance.
Personal
Power
• Expert Power – This is based on a person's superior skill and
knowledge.
• Referent Power – This is the result of a person's perceived
attractiveness, worthiness, and right to respect from others.

Narcissistic Leadership Continuum
Healthy/Positive Grey Area Unhealthy/Destructive/Negative
 Visionary.
 Fun.
 Attracts followers.
 Acts boldly.
 Initiates.
 Driven.
 Energetic.
 Vulnerable.
 Positive and
negative aspects
merge here.
 Positive aspects
may be or
occasionally
become prominent
and enabling
towards aims, which
helps to sustain the
style and the leader,
and the followers.
 Leader does not have good self-image.
 Gathers people who bolster leader's self-esteem.
 Co-dependence between leader and followers if
they also suffer hidden feelings of inadequacy.
 Without realizing it, followers cluster around the
narcissistic leader to feel better about themselves
by association.
 Followers work with the 'impressive, important
leader so we too must share these qualities to
some degree' - or so they believe.
 There is emotional and potentially material and
reputational benefit for leader and followers.
Narcissistic Leadership Continuum

Differences between Transformational and Transactional leadership
styles
Transformational Transactional
Purpose
A shared higher, more
stretching purpose is central to
transformational leadership.
No shared purpose binds
follower and leader, other than
perhaps maintaining the status
quo.
Morality
Burns said there is always a
moral aspect to transforming
leadership.
There is no explicit moral side
to transactional leadership -
the leader's aims may be moral
or immoral.
Timescale
Transforming leadership
centers on longer-term, more
difficult (often more inspiring)
aims.
Transactional leadership
usually focuses on leaders' and
followers' shorter-term needs.

diagrams used to convey 8 of the most popular motivation theories
and models.
Motivation Theories
Descriptions and Diagrams of Motivation
Theories & Models

Contents
• Introduction to Motivation
Theories
• Content Theories
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Alderfer’s ERG Theory
 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
 McClelland’s Acquired Needs
Theory
• Process Theories
 Adams’ Equity Theory
 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
 Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory
• Reinforcement Theory
 Skinner’s Reinforcement
Theory
• Challenges of Motivation in the
New Workplace

Basic concepts of motivation
• Motivation refers to forces within an individual that account for the
level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.
 Direction — an individual’s choice when presented with a number of
possible alternatives.
 Level — the amount of effort a person puts forth.
 Persistence — the length of time a person stays with a given action.

Why is motivation important?
• Motivational strategies can help improve employee performance,
reduce the chances of low employee morale, encourage teamwork
and instill a positive attitude during challenging times.
• Employees with a high level of motivation typically work harder and
smarter and can overcome common workplace challenges with
ease; this helps the organization reach its objectives and improve
operations overall.

Major theories of motivation
Content Theories Process Theories
Reinforcement
Theory
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs
 Alderfer’s ERG Theory
 Herzberg’s Two Factor
Theory
 McClelland’s Acquired
Needs Theory
 Vroom’s Expectancy
Theory
 Adams’ Equity Theory
 Locke’s Goal Setting
Theory
 Skinner’s
Reinforcement Theory

Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs
Self-actualization needs
Esteem needs
Social needs
Safety needs
Physiological
Needs

Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs
Self-actualization needs
What satisfies higher order needs?
Esteem needs
Social needs
Safety needs
Physiological needs
What satisfies lower order needs?
 Creative and challenging work
 Participation in decision making
 Job flexibility and autonomy
 Responsibility of an important job
 Promotion to higher status job
 Praise and recognition from boss
 Friendly coworkers
 Interaction with customers
 Pleasant supervisor
 Safe working conditions
 Job security
 Base compensation and benefits
 Rest and refreshment breaks
 Physical comfort on the job
 Reasonable work hours

Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Growth
Needs
Relatedness Needs
Existence Needs
NeedProgression
NeedRegression

Herzberg’s two-factor theory
Improving the
motivator factors
increases
job satisfaction
Improving the
hygiene factors
decreases
job dissatisfaction
Herzberg’s
Two-Factor
Principles
Job Dissatisfaction Job Satisfaction
Influenced by
Hygiene
Factors
_________________
 Working conditions
 Coworker relations
 Policies and rules
 Supervisor quality
 Base wage, salary
Influenced by
Motivator
Factors
_________________
 Achievement
 Recognition
 Responsibility
 Work itself
 Advancement
 Personal growth

Work preferences of persons high in need for Achievement,
Affiliation and Power
Individual Need Work Preferences Job Example
High need for
Achievement
 Individual responsibility
 Challenging but achievable
goals
 Feedback on performance
 Field sales person with
challenging quota and
opportunity to earn
individual bonus
High need for
Power
 Control over other persons
 Attention
 Recognition
 Formal position of
supervisory responsibility
 Appointment as head of
special task force or
committee
High need for
Affiliation
 Interpersonal relationships
 Opportunities to
communicate
 Customer service
representative
 Member of work unit
subject to group wage
bonus plan

Comparison of Maslow’s, Alderfer’s, Herzberg’s and McClelland’s
motivation theories
Self-
actualization
Esteem
Achievement
Power
Social
Safety
Physiological
AffiliationRelatedness
Existence
Growth Satisfier factors
Hygiene factors
Maslow Alderfer Herzberg McClelland
Higher
order
needs
Lower
order
needs

Equity theory and the role of social comparison
Personal rewards
vis-à-vis
personal inputs
Others’ rewards
vis-à-vis
others’ inputs
are compared to
with the result
Perceived Equity
_________________________
The individual is satisfied and
does not change behavior
Perceived Inequity
_________________________
The individual is discomfort and
acts to eliminate the inequity

Expectancy theory
Person
exerts work
effort
to achieve work-related
outcomes
task
performance
and realize
Expectancy
__________________
“Can I achieve the desired
level of task
performance?”
Valence
__________________
“How highly do I value
work outcomes?”
Instrumentality
__________________
“What work outcomes will
be received as a result of
the performance?”

Managerial implications of expectancy theory
 Select workers with ability
 Train workers to use ability
 Support work efforts
 Clarify performance goals
 Clarify physiological contracts
 Communicate performance –
outcome possibilities
 Demonstrate what rewards are
contingent on performance
 Identify individual needs
 Adjust rewards to match these
needs
Make the person feel competent and
capable of achieving the desired
performance level
Make the person confident in understanding
which rewards and outcomes will follow
performance accomplishments
Make the person understand the value of
various possible rewards and work
outcomes
To maximize Expectancy
To maximize Instrumentality
To maximize Valence

Applying reinforcement strategies: case of total quality management
High-quality
production
Manager’s
Objective
Praise employee;
recommend pay
increase
Stop
complaints
Withhold praise
and rewards
Reprimand
employee
Positive
reinforcement
Negative
reinforcement
Extinction
Punishment
Type of
Reinforcement
Reinforcement
Strategy
Individual
Behavior
Meets production goals with
zero defects
Meets production goals but
with high percentage defects

Challenges of motivation in the new workplace
• Pay for performance
 Paying people for performance is consistent with:
− Equity theory.
− Expectancy theory.
− Reinforcement theory.
 Merit pay
− Awards a pay increase in proportion to individual performance contributions.
− Provides performance contingent reinforcement.
− May not succeed due to weakness in performance appraisal system or lack of
consistency in application.

Job design for motivation
• Job design
 Application of motivational theories to the structure of work for improving
productivity and satisfaction.
• Job simplification
 Job design whose purpose is to improve task efficiency by reducing the
number of tasks a single person must do.
• Job Rotation
 Job design that systematically moves employees from one job to another
to provide them with variety and stimulation.
• Job Enlargement
 Job design that combines a series of tasks into one new, broader job to
give employees variety and challenge.

About Operational Excellence
Consulting

About Operational Excellence
Consulting
• Operational Excellence Consulting is a management
training and consulting firm that assists organizations in
improving business performance and effectiveness.
• The firm’s mission is to create business value for
organizations through innovative operational excellence
management training and consulting solutions.
• OEC takes a unique “beyond the tools” approach to enable
clients develop internal capabilities and cultural
transformation to achieve sustainable world-class excellence
and competitive advantage. For more information, please visit
www.oeconsulting.com.sg

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Leadership & Motivation Theories by Operational Excellence Consulting