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1. ENGLISH GRAMMAR
GRAMMAR:
It is the science of language and the collection of rules which regulates
(runs) a language. There is no end to grammar; but it leads to perfection.
THE SENTENCE:
A sentence is a group of words arranged in an order, which makes
complete sense. It must have a subject and a verb. A sentence starts with
a capital letter and ends with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark
according to the function of the sentence.
Sometimes an imperative sentence may have only one word.
If someone says to you ‘Go’, you can easily understand his meaning.
Thus one word can make complete sense and can be called a
sentence. In this sentence the subject ‘You’ is understood and the
verb is ‘go’.
A PHRASE:
A group of words which does not have a subject and a predicate of its
own, and does not able to convey complete sense unless used in a
sentence is called a phrase.
e.g. To reach before time.
TYPES OF SENTENCES (Based on Function)
Sentences are grouped according to the functions they perform.
There are four types of sentences.
1. Declarative Sentence:
A sentence that declares or states something is called a Declarative
Sentence, a statement or an Assertive Sentence. It ends with a full stop.
A statement may be Affirmative,Negativeor Emphatic.
Affirmative Statement: It states something that is positive, not
negative. It is simply called a positive statement. It is opposite to the
negative statement.

2. 2
Negative Statement: It states something that is not true or
something that is incorrect or false. An adverb of negation “Not” is
added in the sentence to negate its validity according to the tense of
the sentence in agreement with its subject. It is opposite to the
Affirmative statement.
Emphatic Statement: A statement that is made for the sake of
emphasis. It is used to say something with emphasis, force and
stress to show its importance. It shows strong feelings about what is
said.
a) I go to university daily. (Affirmative Statement)
b) They do not work hard. (Negative Statement)
c) We must respectour teachers. (Emphatic Statement)
2. Interrogative Sentence:
A sentence that asks a question is called an interrogative sentence or,
simply, a question. It ends with a question mark.
a) Do you go to university daily?
b) Does he work hard?
c) Where do you live?
3. Imperative Sentence:
A sentence that expresses a command or a request is called an
imperative sentence. It ends with a full stop.
a) Be quiet.
b) Shut the door.
c) Have mercy upon us.
If it is a strong command, it may end with an exclamation mark.
d) Be off!
e) I say get lost!
4. Exclamatory Sentence:
A sentence that expresses strong emotion, or strong feelings or great
excitement is called an exclamatory sentence or an exclamation. It ends
with an exclamation mark.

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a) How cold the night is!
b) What a great shot!
Sometimes an exclamation is a mild one. Then it ends with a full stop.
c) May I never forgetit.
Sometimes an exclamation forms only part of a sentence. It takes a comma
after it and the next word starts with a small letter.
d) Oh dear, what have you done?
Optative Sentence:
An Optative sentence expresses some wish or a prayer. Optative
sentence is considereda type of exclamatory sentence.
a) May you live long!
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A CLAUSE:
A clause is a group of words including a finite verb. It has a subject
and a predicate like a simple sentence. The only difference is that it forms
part of a sentence.
Considerthe following examples:
a) I hope to reach beforetime.
b) I hope that I will reach beforetime.
In example (a) the group of words ‘to reach before time’ does not have a
subjectand a predicate of its own. Therefore,it is called a phrase.
In example (b) the group of words ‘that I will reach before time’ has a
subject and a predicate of its own, but as it is being used as a part of a
sentence,therefore,it is called a clause.
TYPES OF CLAUSES:
A clause is divided into two types:
1. Main clause/Principal clause/Independentclause.
2. Subordinate or Dependentclause.

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1. Main Clause/Principal Clause/Independent Clause:
A clause which has a subject and a predicate of its own, and which
can stand alone as a sentence, is called Main clause, Principal clause or
Independentclause.
2. Subordinate or Dependent Clause:
A clause which may have a subject and a predicate of its own but it
can neither convey complete sense nor it can stand alone as a sentence
and it has a subordinator, is called a subordinate or dependentclause.
Explanation:
Considerthe following sentence:
They were playing in the ground when I saw them.
This sentence may be studied as follows:
They were playing in the ground. This part has a subject ‘they’ and a verb
‘were playing’ of its own. It can stand alone as a sentence. It is called an
‘IndependentClause’.
When I saw them. This part of the sentence also has a subject ‘I’ and a
verb ‘saw’ of its own but it can neither convey complete sense nor it can
stand alone as a sentence. It has also a subordinator ‘when’. Therefore, it
is called ‘a Dependentor Subordinate Clause’.
Types of Dependent Clauses:
Dependent/Subordinate clauses can be divided into following types.
i) Noun Clause: A noun clause is a dependent clause which performs the
function of a noun in relation to the dependentclause.
e.g. I know that speed has increased.
Thatspeed has increased makes me excited.
ii) Adjective Clause: An adjective clause is a dependent clause which
performs the function of an adjective in modifying a noun or pronoun.
e.g. The book which has a beautiful cover is quite expensive.
I don’t know the place where you lived.
iii) Adverb Clause: An adverb clause is a dependent clause which
performs the function of an adverb. Adverb clauses begin with various
subordinating conjunctions according to their functions.
e.g. She may go whenevershe wants.
You may eat whateveryou want.

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TYPES OF SENTENCES (Based on Structure)
There are three types of sentences based on structure.
1. Simple Sentence:
A sentence which has only one subject and one predicate is called a simple
sentence.A simple sentence has only one finite verb.
i) He worked very hard.
ii) She sleeps.
iii) They wrote a letter.
Finite Form of Verb: The form of verb which can be used without a helping
verb is called finite form of verb. For example, walk, sleep,write etc.
2. Compound Sentence:
A compound sentence is made up of two or more principal or main clauses.
In a compound sentence two or more than two clauses are joined by using
coordinating conjunctions. A sentence which has two principal or main
clauses is termed as ‘Double’ and a sentence which has more than two
principal or main clauses is termed as ‘Multiple’.
Therefore, it can be said that a complex sentence has more than one
subjects and more than one predicates.
Explanation:
Considerthe following sentences:
a) The sun was shining and the boys were playing. (Double)
b) Some friends arrived and they brought gifts and we enjoyed
ourselves. (Multiple)
Sentence (a) consists of two parts:
The sun was shining.
The boys were playing.
Sentence (b) consists of three parts:
Some guests arrived.
They brought gifts.
We enjoyed ourselves.

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These two parts in sentence (a) and three parts in sentence (b) are joined
by the CoordinatingConjunction ‘and’.
Each part contains a Subject and a Predicate of its own. Each part can be
said a Clause. Each clause could stand by itself as a separate sentence. It
is, therefore, independent of the other and is called a Principal or Main
Clause.
3. Complex Sentence:
A complex sentence consists of a principal clause with one or more
subordinate clauses. These clauses are joined in a complex sentence often
by using subordinators.
Explanation:
Considerthe following sentence:
I ate becauseI was hungry.
This sentence has two parts:
i. I ate. ii. Because I was hungry.
Both these parts have their own subject and predicates. We can call each
part a clause. We can see that the clause ‘I ate’ can stand alone as a
complete sentence; therefore, it is an Independent Clause. We call it main
clause or principal clause.
On the other hand, the clause ‘because I was hungry’ cannot stand alone
conveying a complete sense. It depends upon the clause ‘I ate’. Therefore,
it is called Dependent or Subordinate Clause. It is joined in the given
sentence with a subordinating conjunction ‘because’.
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PARTS OF SPEECH
THE NOUN
A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, an activity, a quality and
an idea. A noun can be used as ‘a subject’ and as ‘an object’ in a sentence.
A noun is either countable or uncountable.
For example:
Karim, Name of a person
Lahore Name of a place
Book Name of a thing
Hiking Name of an activity
Honesty Name of a quality
Democracy Name of an idea.
KINDS OF NOUNS:
1. Proper Noun:
A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place or thing. A
propernoun always begins with a capital letter.
For example:
Akbar, The Holy Quran, Islamabad etc.
2. Common Noun:
A common noun denotes no particular person, place or thing. It is
common to all persons, places or things of the same kind. Common nouns
do not begin with capital letters.
For example:
boy, girl, book, city etc.
3. Collective Noun:
A collective noun denotes a group or collection of similar individuals,
considered as one complete whole.
For example:
There can be many ‘sheep’ in jungle but collectively all of them are called
one ‘flock’. Here ‘sheep’ is a common noun because it may stand for any
sheep but ‘flock’ is a collective noun because it stands for all sheep.

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Some more examples of collective noun are:
An anthology of poetry, A band of musicians, bench of judges, board of
Directors, class of students, crowd of people, group of Islands, party of
friends, team of players, brood of chicks, bunch of keys, cloud of locusts,
clump of trees, congregation of worshipers, consignment of goods,
curriculum of studies, gang of thieves, hail of blows, League of nations,
pack of wolves, pile of stones, series of events, squadron of aeroplanes,
swarm of bees, herd of cattle, company ofsoldiers etc.
4. Material Noun:
A material noun describes the matter or the substance of which
things are made.
For example: Wood,iron, milk, butter, air etc.
Some moderngrammars considermaterial noun as commonnoun
Difference between common noun and material noun:
The same word can be a material noun or a common noun according to the
sense,in a sentence.
For example
‘Sheep’ is a common noun; but ‘mutton’ (the flesh of sheep) is a material
noun.
Considerthis sentence: “Fish live in water.”
Fish is a commonnoun here, because it denotes any individual fish.
Considerthis sentence: “Fish is good for food.”
Here fish is a material noun, because it denotes the matter of which the
bodies of fish are made.
5. Abstract Noun:
An abstract noun denotes some quality, state or action. Abstract
nouns cannot be touched but just felt, imagined or thought of.
For example:
A stone is hard; iron or bricks are also hard. Therefore, we can think of
‘hardness’ without speaking of stone or iron or brick. ‘Hardness’ is an
abstract noun, but bricks or iron or stones are not abstract.

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Some more examples of abstract nouns are:
Honesty, beauty, cleverness,(Denoting qualities)
Shock, pleasure, happy (Denoting state)
Laughter (Denoting action)
6. Compound Noun:
A noun which consists of ‘separate nouns joined together’ is called a
compound noun.
For example: Singular Plural
House + Wife = housewife housewives
Post + Card = postcard postcards
Brother + in + law = brother-in-law brothers-in-law
But
Step + Son = step-son step-sons
Follow + Up = follow-up Follow-ups
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THE PRONOUN
A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It is used to avoid
repeating a noun that has been either mentioned before or is clearly
understood already, we put another word instead of it, and this word is
called a pronoun. ‘Pro’ means ‘instead of’, if we use a specific name again
and again, we feel embarrassed. The use of pronoun saves us from this
embarrassment.
Some well-known pronouns are He, she, it, My, Ours, Mine, that etc.
Antecedent:
A pronoun normally refers to another noun or pronoun in the
sentence. The noun or pronoun referred by another pronoun is called its
antecedent.
For example:
1) Afridi plays cricket. He is a fine player.
(Here Afridi is antecedent of he and ‘he’ is a pronoun used instead of
‘Afridi’.)

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Repetitionof Nouns:
Ahmad saw a lion in the jungle, this lion Ahmad thought would hurt Ahmad,
unless Ahmad killed the lion with a gun, this gun Ahmad had in Ahmad’s
hand.
The Usage of Pronoun:
Ahmad saw a lion in the jungle which he thought would hurt him, unless he
killed it with a gun which hehad in his hand.
We see that we avoided repeating nouns by using pronouns and also
improved the description/expression.
KINDS OF PRONOUNS:
1. Personal Pronouns:
The pronouns which are used for three persons are called personal
pronouns.
I, WE, YOU, HE, SHE, IT, THEY
FirstPerson:It denotes the person “speaking”. I, We
Second Person:It denotes the person “spokento”. You
Third Person:It denotes the person“spokenof”. He, she, it, they,
Chart of Personal Pronouns
Ist Person 2nd Person 3rd Person
Sing. Plural
Sing. +
Plural
Sing.
Masc.
Sing.
Fem.
Sing.
Neuter Plural
Nominative Or
Subjective Case
I WE YOU HE SHE IT THEY
Accusative Or
Objective Case
ME US YOU HIM HER IT THEM
Possessive
Adjective
MY OUR YOUR HIS HER Its THEIR
Possessive
Pronoun Case
MINE OURS YOURS HIS HERS Theirs
Possessive Pronouns:
“Mine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs”
The above mentioned words are called possessive pronouns.

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2. Reflexive Pronouns:
Myself, ourselves, yourself,yourselves, himself, herself,itself, themselves
‘Self’ or ‘selves’ form of a pronoun is Reflexive when the action expressed
by the verb reflects back upon the subject and not to any other person or
thing.
A reflexive pronoun plays the role of an object in a sentence, therefore, the
subjectand the objectis the same person.
For example:
God helps those who help themselves.
You will hurt yourself.
We enjoyed ourselves at Swat.
We seldom see ourselves as others see us.
3. Emphatic or Intensive Pronouns:
Myself, ourselves, yourself,yourselves, himself, herself,itself, themselves
‘Self’ or ‘Selves’ form of pronoun is emphatic or intensive when it is used
for the sake of emphasis.
For example:
I have done it myself.
He himselftold me.
I myselfheard the remark.
Difference Between Reflexive and EmphaticPronouns:
a) In reflexive pronoun the action turns back on the subject and without
reflexive pronoun desired meaning cannot be conveyed.
b) In emphatic pronoun a sentence conveys its desired meaning without
an emphatic pronoun. It only lacks emphasis.

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4. Demonstrative Pronoun:
This, these, that, those, one, ones, none, such
A demonstrative pronoun demonstrates or points to some noun that is
already going before, and it is used instead of that. These pronouns are
used to point out the objects to which they refer. The objects which are
referred are called antecedents.
For example:
i. Both cars are good;but this is better than that.
The antecedent Demonstrative Demonstrative
Pronoun. Pronoun.
ii. Multani mangoes are better than those of Hyderabdi’.
iii. My views are quite in accordance with those of the University
Commission.
iv. Your shirt is black; mine is white one.
v. Make haste, that’s a good boy.
vi. He was the representative of the king, and as such they honoured
him.
vii. This is the Faisal Mosque.
5. Indefinite Pronouns:
Any, one, none, they, all, some, somebody, nobody, few, many, other,
others, anybody, everybody etc.
These pronouns refer to persons or things in a general way. They do not
refer to any person or thing specifically. Therefore, they are called indefinite
pronouns. Some of these nouns are used singular and some are plural.
For example:
i. All were saved.
ii. One hardly knows what to do.

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iii. One must not boast to one’s success.
iv. None of his poems are well known.
v. Some are born great.
vi. Somebody has stolen my watch.
vii. Nobody was there to rescue the child.
viii. Few escapedunhurt.
ix. Many of the passengers were injured.
x. Do good to others.
xi. Business of everybody is business of nobody.
xii. Verses of Iqbal are on the lips of everybody.
6. Relative Pronouns:
Who, whom, whose, which and that.
A relative pronoun relates (i.e., carries us back) to some noun or other
pronoun going before (its antecedent) in the sentence.
Considerthe following examples:
See the following pairs of sentences:
i) I met Anwer, Anwer had just returned.
ii) I have found the book, I had lost the book.
iii) This is the pen, you lent me the pen.
By combining these sentences into one:
iv) I met Anwer who had just returned.
v) I have found the book which I had lost.
vi) This is the pen that you lent me.
In sentence (iv) the word ‘who’ is used as a pronoun instead of the noun
‘Anwer’. The pronoun ‘who’ carries us back to the noun going before i.e.,
‘Anwer’ (antecedent). Actually it is used to relate or referto its antecedent.
In sentence (v) the word ‘which’ is used instead of the noun ‘the book’. The
pronoun ‘which’ carries us back to the noun going before i.e., ‘the book’
(antecedent). Actually it is used to relate or refer to its antecedent.

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In sentence (vi) the word ‘that’ is used instead of the noun ‘the pen’. The
pronoun ‘that’ carries us back to the noun going before i.e., ‘the pen’
(antecedent). Actually it is used to relate or refer to its antecedent.
The words who, which and that are performing double function – the work
of a pronoun and also the work of a conjunction. We might, therefore, call
them Conjunctive Pronouns.
Some more examples of relative pronouns are:
The ground which we dig will bear a fine crop.
The moment which is lost is lost forever.
The students who work hard always succeed.
The man who is honest is trusted.
He that is not with me is against me.
He was the mosteloquent speaker that I ever heard.
This is the boy whose exercise is done well.
These are the students whose assignments are completed.
This is the man whom I taught a lessonthe other day.
There was no man whom I could tell my pain.
7. Interrogative Pronouns:
Who, whom, which, what and whose.
Who, whom, which, what and whose are used for asking questions,
therefore,they are called interrogative pronouns.
For example:
i. Who spoke?
ii. Of whom did he speak?
iii. What did he say?
iv. Which of these boys has won the race?
v. Whose is that book?
vi. About whom are you talking?
vii. Which of the doctors visited here?
viii. Which do you prefer, tea or coffee?
ix. What is the matter?

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x. Who are you talking about?
xi. What is sweeterthan honey?
8. Distributive Pronouns:
Each, either, neither.
Distributive pronouns refer to persons or things one at a time. They are
always singular and take singular verb.
For example:
i. Each of the students participated in the debate.
ii. Neither ofthe candidates arrived.
iii. Either of these roads leads to the airport.
iv. Neither ofthe accusations is true.
9. Reciprocal Pronouns:
One another, each other.
One another and each other are called reciprocal pronouns. One another is
generally used when writing of more than two people and each other is
used when writing of two people. Both reciprocal pronouns have
possessive and objective cases.
For example:
i. Ali and Ahmad found each other’s companysatisfying.
ii. All the students sought one another’s assistance.
iii. The two brothers should not quarrel with each other.
iv. They all gave evidence against one another.

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10. Quantitative Pronoun:
Some, many, much, few, etc.
Sometime the words like some, many, much, few, little, etc., are used
instead of nouns to describe the quantity, they are called quantitative
pronouns.
For example:
i. Few were called but many came to the party.
ii. Many were pushed but a few fell.
iii. Have you gone to Southern cities? Yes, I have visited many.
iv. I need money to buy a car, would you give me some?
v. I cannot buy these books,can you lend me some?
11. Compound Relative Pronoun:
Whoever, whosoever, whichever, whatever, whatsoever, whomever.
If we add ‘ever’ or ‘soever’ to who, which and what, we get compound
relative pronouns.
For example:
i. You have three choices: whichever you overlook, you will be in
trouble.
ii. Whatever men do, they must be prepared to stand by their
actions.
iii. Give it to whomeveryou deem mostworthy.
iv. Whoeverarrives is welcome.
v. Take whicheveryou like.
vi. Whateverhe chooses,he chooses well.
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THE ADJECTIVE
An adjective is a word which adds something to the meaning of a noun or
pronoun.
Or
A word used with a noun to describe or point out, the person, place or thing
which the noun names, or to tell the number or quantity, is called an
adjective.
e.g. A tall boy, an intelligent girl, a great leader, an honest man, a
beautiful city.
Considerthe following sentences:
a) The innocent man was deceived.
b) The man was innocent.
c) He is innocent.
In sentence (a): The adjective ‘innocent’ is used as an attribute to its noun
‘man’, therefore, it is called ‘attributively used adjective’. It is qualifying
the noun ‘man’.
In sentence (b): The adjective ‘innocent’ is used after the verb and it
becomes a part of the predicate. Therefore, it is called ‘predicatively used
adjective’.It is modifying the noun ‘man’.
In sentence ( c ): The adjective ‘innocent; adds something to the meaning
of the pronoun ‘he’.
There are two places where we can normally use an adjective; before a
noun and after the linking verb.
For example:
i. I bought a new car.
ii. My car is new.
iii. It is a dark room.
iv. The room is dark.
In the above examples the adjectives ‘new’ and ‘dark’ are used in both
positions.

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In older English, it was quite common to put attributive adjectives after
nouns, especiallyin poetry and songs.
For example:
i. A child beautiful and innocent.
ii. The prince appeared from his palace grand.
In modern English, this is only possible in a few cases. They are used in
some fixed phrases.
a) Governor General
b) Secretary General
c) Court Martial
d) Poet Laureate
e) Attorney General etc.
(Although in poetry or in the works of fiction, attributively used adjectives
are still being used after nouns, even in modern literature. But in
communicative English it should be practiced with a lot of care and
command.)
There are adjectives which can only be used before a noun.
For example:
i. He is passing through the main gate.
ii. Wealth is his only weakness.
iii. The former captain now coaches the team.
There are adjectives which can only be used after a linking verb.
For example:
i. The child is asleep.
ii. She was pleased to see me.
iii. The boat is still afloat.
Most adjectives can be used in both positions – before a noun or after a
linking verb. But a few adjectives can be used in one position only.

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THE KINDS OF ADJECTIVES:
1. Proper Adjective:
Those adjectives which describe a thing by some proper noun are called
properadjectives.
For example:
i. The Chinesefood. The food eaten in China.
ii. The Pakistannavy. The navy of Pakistan.
iii. The English language. The language of England.
2. Adjectives of Quality/State or Descriptive Adjective:
This kind of adjective qualifies a noun by showing the quality or state of
the thing named.
For example:
i. A brave girl.
ii. A sick horse.
In above mentioned sentences ‘brave’ shows the quality of the girl and
‘sick’ shows the state of the horse.
3. Adjectives of Quantity or Degree:
This kind of adjective qualifies a noun by showing the quantity or degree
of the thing named. They tell how much of the thing is meant.
For example:
i. The player has much pain. (High degree of pain)
ii. She does not eat much bread. (Large quantity of bread)
iii. I have enough/sufficient shirts. (Quantity of shirts)
4. Adjectives of Number Or Numeral Adjectives:
This kind of adjective shows how many persons or things are meant, or in
what order aperson or thing stands.
For example:

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i. I have ten shirts.
ii. Many boys were playing cricket.
iii. She stood first in the class.
Numeral adjectives are further subdivided into three types:
a) Definite NumeralAdjectives:
One, Two, Three, Four, Five, etc., ----- Cardinals
First, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, etc., ----------- Ordinals
Those adjectives which denote some exact number. They show how
many things are there. They also show in what order athing stands.
e.g. One, Two, Three, Four, etc.,
(show numbers and called Cardinals)
e.g. First, Second,Third etc.,
(show order and called Ordinals)
b) Indefinite NumeralAdjectives:
All, some, no, many, few, more, most, several, sundry etc.
Those adjectives which do not show exact number are called Indefinite
Numeral Adjectives.
For example:
i. All men are mortal.
ii. Few women in the world are rich.
iii. Mostmen have to work for their bread.
iv. Several students passed the entry test.
v. No man can afford to sit idle in modern day world.
vi. Some players did not perform well in the match.
c) Distributive NumeralAdjectives:
Those adjectives which denote that the things named in the sentence are
taken singly, separately, or in separate lots.
For example:
i. Each player must maintain his fitness.

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ii. A teacher demands every student to work hard.
iii. Every statementthat he gave proved true.
The same adjectives can be used as Adjectives of Quantity or Adjectives of
Number.
For example:
i. I bought some sugar. (Adjective of Quantity)
ii. Some boys were playing. (Adjective of Number)
iii. He has no money. (Adjective of Quantity)
iv. No books could be found on this topic. (Adjective of Number)
5. Demonstrative Adjectives:
This, that, these, those, such, one
This kind of adjective qualifies a noun by pointing out or
demonstrating which thing is meant.
e.g. This pen, these plates, that book, those pencils,such things, etc.
a) Definite Demonstrative Adjectives:
When some particular thing is pointed out, the adjective is called ‘Definite
Demonstrative Adjective’.
b) Indefinite DemonstrativeAdjectives:
When no particular thing is pointed out, it is called ‘Indefinite Demonstrative
Adjective’.
Definite Demonstrative
Adjectives
Indefinite Demonstrative
Adjectives
The
This, that, these, those, the same,
the other.
A, An
Any, one, certain, some, other,
another.

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‘The’ is often called the definite article; and ‘a’ or ‘an’ are called indefinite
articles. But ‘the’ is only shorter and less precise form of ‘this’, ‘that’,
‘these’ and ‘a’ or ‘an’ is shorter form of ‘one’. So an article is not a distinct
part of speech.It is a kind of demonstrative adjectives.
Difference between Demonstrative Adjectives and Demonstrative
Pronouns:
Most of these words like this, that, these, those, such and one are used as
demonstrative pronouns as well. The difference betweenthem is as under:
A) When they qualify some noun expressed or understood, they are
demonstrative adjectives.
For example:
i. She visited my house one day.
ii. Thesebooks are mine.
In these sentences ‘one’ is used as an adjective qualifying the noun ‘day’
and ‘these’ qualifies the noun ‘book’.
B) When they are substitutes for some noun expressed or
understood,they are pronouns.
For example:
Your shirt is black; mine is white one.
In this sentence ‘one’ is a pronoun which is used instead of the noun ‘shirt’.
6. Interrogative Adjectives:
Such adjectives as are used with nouns to ask questions, are called
interrogative adjectives.
For example:
i. Which doctorshould we consult?

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ii. Whose bag is this?
7. Possessive Adjectives:
My, his, her, its, our, your, their
The above mentioned words, when used attributively before a noun, are
called possessive adjectives.
8. Emphasizing Adjectives:
Sometimes the words ‘own’ and ‘very’ are used for emphasis, they are
called emphasizing adjectives.
For example:
i. He does his work with his own hands.
ii. Use your own brain to solve this question.
iii. Mind your own business.
iv. This was the very idea I wanted to talk about.
v. The very root of this problem lies in his behavior.
9. Exclamatory Adjective:
Sometimes the word ‘what’ is used for exclamation.
For example:
i. What a shot!
ii. What a blunder!
iii. What a blessing!
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THE VERB
A verb is a word which tells the state or action of a person or thing. Verb
comes from a Latin Verbum, a word. It is so called because it is the most
important word in a sentence.
e.g. He plays cricket. Shows action.
He is a student. Shows state of being.
 A verb sometime tells us what a personor thing does.
e.g. Ahmad swims.
The clock strikes.
 A verb sometime tells what is done to a personor thing.
e.g. The culprit was scolded.
The window is broken.
 A verb sometime tells what a personor thing is:
e.g. The horse is dead.
Transitive Verb:
Transitive means passing over. A verb is transitive when it passes over the
action from the doeror subjectto some object.
Or
A transitive verb is a verb that denotes an action which passes over from
the subject to an object
For example:
i. The fox killed the rabbit.
ii. The girl picked a mango.
iii. The boy kicked the football.
In sentence ( i ): The action of the subject ‘the fox’ denoted by the verb
‘killed’ passes over from the subjectto the object‘the rabbit’.

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In sentence ( ii ): The action of the subject ‘the girl’ denoted by the verb
‘picked’passes over from the subjectto the object‘a mango’.
In sentence ( iii ): The action of the subject ‘the boy’ denoted by the verb
‘kicked’ passes over from the subjectto the object‘the football’.
The voice of a sentence in which a transitive verb is used can be changed.
For example:
The fox killed the rabbit. (Active Voice)
The rabbit was killed by the fox. (Passive Voice)
Intransitive Verb:
A verb is intransitive when it does not require an object because the action
denoted by the verb does not pass over to anything else. We can say an
intransitive verb expressesa state.
Or
An intransitive verb is a verb that denotes an action which does not pass
over to an object.
For example:
i. The child weeps loudly.
ii. The girl laughs gracefully.
iii. The baby sleeps.
An Object:
A noun or pronoun that receives the action of the verb is called an object.
For example:
i. The robber robbed him.
ii. The teacher punished the students.

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Directand IndirectObjects:
Some transitive verbs, such as give, ask, offer, promise, tell etc., take
two objects after them.
For example:
i. His father gave him a watch.
ii. He told me a story.
A directobjectis usually the name of something.
i. His father gave him a watch.
A Direct Object
ii. He told me a story.
A Direct Object
An Indirect Object denotes the person to whom something is given or for
whom something is done (Accusative Case).
i. His father gave him a watch.
An Indirect Object.
ii. He told me a story
An IndirectObject.
Auxiliary Verb:
An auxiliary verb is a helping verb. It is used along with the main verb to
form tenses and voices.
Auxiliary verbs are: is, am are, has, have, had, do, does, did, was, were
and been.

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Linking Verb Or Copular Verb:
There are certain special kind of verbs which join an adjective to a noun
(subject). These verbs are called Linking Verbs or Copular Verbs.
Following are some commonlinking verbs:
Seem, appear, look, sound, smell, taste, feel, become, get, grow, turn,
stay, remain, make, is, am, are, was, were, been etc.
For example:
i. I feel happy.
ii. The dish smells good.
iii. The city looks beautiful.
Finite Form of Verb:
The form of verb which can be used without a helping verb is called finite
form of verb.
For example:
i. He writes an essay.
ii. Afridi plays cricket.
iii. The judge decided the case.
Non-Finite Form of Verb:
The form of verb which cannot be used alone as main verb is called Non-
Finite Form of Verb. These verbs cannot be used alone with a subject or
cannot be made the predicate of a sentence without the support of any
other helping verb. There are three kinds of Non-Finite Form of Verbs.
a) The Infinitive:
The infinitive is the base of a verb, often preceded by ‘to’. ‘To’ is often used
with infinitive but not its essential part. An infinitive has the force of a noun
and a verb.

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The infinitive without ‘to’ is used after the verbs will, would, shall, should,
may, might, can, could, bid, let, make, need, dare, see, hear, must, had
batter, had rather, would rather, sooner than, rather than etc. Some
examples of infinitives ‘with to’ are as under:
i. I want to go.
ii. They tried to find fault with others.
iii. To err is human.
iv. The students are anxious to learn.
Some examples of infinitives ‘without to’ are as under:
i. Let him sit here.
ii. I will not let you go.
iii. You need not do it.
iv. You dare not do it.
v. I heard him cry.
vi. I saw him do it.
vii. I will pay the bill.
viii. You should work harder.
ix. You must come to my office.
x. You had batter ask permission.
xi. I had rather play than work.
xii. I would rather die than suffer so.
b) The Participle:
A Participle is a word which is partly a verb and partly an adjective.
Therefore, it is also called Verb adjective or Verbal Adjective. It possesses
the nature of both a verb and an adjective.
Or
A participle is that form of the verb which partakes of the nature both of a
verb and of an adjective.
For example:
Hearing the noise, the boy woke up.
Carrying a basket, the woman went to the market.

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Present Participle: It ends in ‘ing’ and represents an action as ‘going on’
or ‘incomplete’or ‘imperfect’.
For example:
i. We met a girl carrying a basket of flowers.
ii. The child, thinking all was safe, attempted to cross the road.
iii. Knockingat the door, he demanded admission.
Past Participle: It presents an action which is completed.
For example:
i. Deceivedby his friends, he lost all hope.
ii. Blinded bya dust storm, they fell into disorder.
iii. Drivenby hunger, he stole a piece of bread.
c) The Gerund:
When we add ‘ing’ to a verb and the new word becomes a noun, it is called
a gerund. It is also called a Verbal Noun. A gerund has the force of a noun
and a verb.
For example:
i. Teach (a verb) + ing = Teaching (Name of a profession:a gerund)
ii. Read (a verb) + ing = Reading
Teaching is a noble profession.
Reading is his favourite pastime.
As both the gerund and the infinitive have the force of a noun and a verb,
they have the same uses. Thus in many sentences either of them may be
used without any special difference in meaning.
For example:
An Infinitive A Gerund
Teach me to swim. Teach me swimming.
To give is better than to receive. Givingis better than receiving.
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THE ADVERB
An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective
and another adverb in a sentence.
Considerthe following examples:
i. Ahmad runs quickly.
An adverb ‘quickly’ (Answers to in what manner does Ahmad run?)
modifying a verb ‘runs’.
ii. This is a very sweetmango.
An adverb ‘very’ (Answers to how much is the mango sweet?)
modifying an adjective ‘sweet’.
iii. She reads quite clearly.
An adverb ‘quite’ (Answers to what extant does she read clearly?)
modifying another adverb ‘clearly’.
THE KINDS OF ADVERBS:
1. Adverbs of Time:
The adverbs which answer to the question of ‘when’ are called Adverbs of
Time.
For example:
Before: I have heard this before.
Already: I have forgiven him already.
Now: We shall now begin to work.
Soon: We will soon be there.

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Daily: My friend comes to me daily.
Yesterday: The player injured his yesterday.
Late: The train arrived late.
2. Adverbs of Frequency or Adverbs of Number:
The adverbs which answer to the question of ‘how often’ are called
Adverbs of Frequency or Adverbs of Number.
For example:
Always: He alwaysdid his best.
Never: She neverfails.
Once: I met him once.
Twice: I have seen Abdul Sittar Edhi twice.
Often: She often visits library.
Seldom: I seldom go abroad.
Frequently: A sensible man does not make mistakes frequently
3. Adverbs of Place:
The adverbs which answer to the question of ‘where’ are called Adverbs
of Place.
For example:
Everywhere: God is everywhere.
Here/There: Students should not wander here and there in university.
Up: I saw him going up.
Away: The snake moved away.
Forward: A brave man came forward and rescued the child.
Out: Soon after the class the teacher went out.
4. Adverbs of Manner:
The adverbs which answer to the question of ‘how’ or ‘in what manner’
are called Adverbs of Manner.

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For example:
Slowly:
Surely: Pakistan is making progress slowly but surely.
Foolishly: One should not behave foolishly.
Bravely: Tipu Sultan fought bravelyto the bitter end.
Happily: We should exercise tolerance to live happily.
Fast: A batsman should run fast.
Hard: Those who work hard always succeed in life.
In above examples it is observed that adverbs ending in ‘ly’ are derived
from adjectives.
5. Adverbs of Degree or Quantity:
The adverbs which answer to the question of ‘to what extent’ or ‘in what
degree’ or ‘how much’are called Adverbs of Degree or Quantity.
For example:
Too: His father called him too careless.
Very: She is very clever.
Fully: The injured player is now fully recovered.
Almost: The work is almostcompletedby the committee.
So: I am so glad to see you after such a long time.
Pretty: Jennifer Lopezsings pretty well.
Quite: The decisionis quite right.
Altogether: You are altogether mistaken.
6. Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation:
Those adverbs which affirm or negate something are called Adverbs of
Affirmationor Negation.
For example:
Surely: Surely I am mistaken.
Probably: Probably he will return tomorrow.

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Certainly: Certainly we will overcome the issue of terrorism.
Not : Sometime we do not know what to do.
7. Adverbs of Reason:
Those adverbs which give reason of something are called Adverbs of
Reason.
For example:
Hence: As A = B and B= C. Hence,it is proved that A = C.
Therefore: As the wave of extremism is rising in India, therefore,
Pakistan has refused to play a cricket series in India.
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THE PREPOSITION
A preposition is a word placed before a noun or a pronoun to show in what
relation the noun or pronoun stands with regard to something else.
A prepositionshows relation between two things:
a) A noun and another noun.
b) A noun and a verb
c) A noun and an adjective.
Considerthe following examples:
i. The cow is in the field.
ii. The cat jumped off the chair.
iii. He is fond of tea.
In sentence ( i ): The word ‘in’ shows the relation between two things –
the cow and the field. Here a preposition has joined a noun to another
noun.
In sentence ( ii): The word ‘off’ shows the relation between two things –
jumped and the chair. Here a prepositionhas joined a noun to a verb.
In sentence ( iii ): The word ‘of’ shows the relation between two things –
fond and tea. Here a prepositionhas joined a noun to an adjective.

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The noun used with a preposition is called its object. It is in the
accusative case and is said to be governed by the preposition.
Thus, in sentence ( i ), the noun ‘the field’ is in the accusative case,
governed by the preposition‘in’.
The prepositionis usually placed before its object,but sometimes a
prepositionfollows its object.
For example:
i. Here is the watch that you asked for.
ii. What are you thinking of?
iii. What are you looking at?
THE KINDS OF PREPOSITIONS:
1. Simple Prepositions:
At, by, for, from, in, of, off, on, out, through, till, to, up, with
2. Compound Prepositions:
Compound prepositionsare generally formed by prefixing a preposition
to a noun, an adjective or an adverb.
About, above, across, along, amidst, among, amongst, around, before,
behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, inside, outside,
underneath, within, without.
3. Phrase Prepositions:
Phrase prepositions are group of words used with the force of a single
preposition.
For example:
According to, in accordance with, in place of, in addition to, with
reference to, along with, on behalf of, in regard to, in case of, in spite of,
because of, instead of , in compliance with, in the event of, by means of,
on account of, in course of, in favour of, by way of,in order to etc etc.

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THE CONJUNCTION
A conjunction is a word which merely joins together sentences, and
sometimes words. Conjunctions join together sentences often to make
them more compact. Conjunctions must be carefully distinguished from
relative pronouns which are also connecting words. Relative pronouns
join but they also relate the pronouns with already going noun.
Conjunctions merely join words and sentences and do not perform any
other function.
A conjunction is a joiner, a word that connects (conjoins) parts of a sentence.
Considerthe following examples:
i. God made the earth and man made the countries.
ii. She felt uneasy but she did not leave the job.
iii. He must weep, or he will die.
iv. Two and two make four.
v. Waseem Akram and Waqar Younis were good bowlers.
In sentences ( i to iii), the conjunctions ‘and, but, or’ are used to join
together two sentences.
In sentence (iv), the conjunction ‘and’ joins together two words only.
In sentence (v), the conjunction ‘and’ is used to make the sentence
compact.
Now considerthe following examples:
a. Tell them that I will come.
b. This is the house that I want to buy.
In sentence (a) word ‘that’ is used as a conjunction.
In sentence (b) word ‘that’ is used as a relative pronoun.
Remember the acronym FANBOYS: For-And-Nor-But-Or-Yet-So.

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THE KINDS OF CONJUNCTIONS:
1. Co-ordinating Conjunction:
Co-ordinating means of equal rank.
A co-ordinating conjunction joins together clauses of equal rank. Following
are the chief co-ordinating conjunctions.
And, but, for, or, nor, also, either …or, neither… nor
Co-ordinating conjunctions are of four kinds.
A. Cumulative or Copulative:
Cumulative conjunctions merely join one statement or to another.
For examples: and.
i. Ahmad wrote the letters and Zeeshan posted them.
ii. The cow got up and walked away slowly.
B. Adversative:
Adversative conjunctions express oppositionor contrast between two
statements.
For example: but, still, yet, whereas,while, neverthelessetc.
i. The rope was thin but it was strong.
ii. She is poor but she is happy.
iii. He is hard working whereashis brother is quite the reverse.
iv. He is slow but he is sure.
v. I was annoyed, still I kept quiet.
C. Disjunctive or Alternative:
Disjunctive or Alternative conjunctions express a choice between two
alternatives.

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For example: Or, else.
i. She must weep, or she will die.
ii. Either he is mad, or he feigns madness.
iii. Walk quickly, else you will not overtake him.
D. Illative:
Some coordinating conjunctions express something inferred from another
statement or fact. These are called illative conjunctions.
For examples: for and so.
i. Somebodycame, for I heard a knock at the door.
ii. He must be asleep, for there is no light in his room.
iii. He has beenworking hard, so he will pass.
iv. All precautions must have been neglected, for the plague spread
rapidly.
2. Subordinating Conjunctions:
A subordinating conjunction joins a clause to another on which it
depends forits full meaning.
Or
A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate clause to its principal
clause in order to convey its full meaning.
The chief subordinating conjunctions are:
After, because,if, that, though, although, till, before,unless,as, when,
where, while etc.
i. He is happy because he has won the competition.
ii. If he works hard, he will succeed.
iii. As he was not there, I spoke to his brother.
iv. Answer the first question before you proceed further.

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v. I do not know why he left us.
vi. Will you wait till I return?
vii. He will not pay unless he is compelled.
viii. Grievances cannot be redressed unlessthey are known.
ix. I waited for her until she came.
x. He found her bag where she had left it.
xi. I do not understand how it all happened.
xii. He is more intelligent than his brother.
xiii. Tell me that you will come.
xiv. She knew when I will return.
xv. A bookis a book,although there is nothing in it.
xvi. I love him though he betrayed me.
xvii. We shall go since you desire it.
xviii. Look before you leap.
3. Correlative Conjunctions:
Some conjunctions are used in pairs. These conjunctions are called
correlative conjunctions.
For example:
Either – or, neither – nor, Both – and, Though – yet, Whether – or,
Not only – but also.
Either – or: Either take it or leave it.
Neither – nor: Neither she nor her sister tells a lie.
Both – and: We both love and honour him.
Though – yet: Though he is passing through hard time, yet his
spirits are high.
Whether – or: I don’t care whether you go or stay.
Not only – but also: Not only is he intelligent, but also hard working.
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THE INTERJECTION
An Interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feeling or
emotion. It has no grammatical connection with any other word or words
in the sentence. It is merely an exclamatory sound, thrown into a
sentence to denote some strong feeling or emotion. An exclamation
mark is put after an interjection.
An interjection may express ‘joy’: Hurrah! Yahoo!
An interjection may express ‘grief’: Oh! Alas! Ah!
An interjection may express ‘surprise’: Vow! What!
An interjection may express ‘approval’: Bravo!
There are certain phrases which are used like interjections to express
some strong feeling or emotion.
For example:
Good gracious! Damn it! For shame! Welldone!
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