2. • No single laboratory finding is pathognomonic of enuresis;
but clinicians must rule out organic factors, such as the
presence of urinary tract infections, that may predispose a
child to enuresis.
• Structural obstructive abnormalities may be present in up to
3 percent of children with apparent enuresis.
• Sophisticated radiographic studies are usually deferred in
simple cases of enuresis with no signs of repeated infections
or other medical problems.

3. • To make the diagnosis of enuresis, organic causes of bladder dysfunction must be
investigated and ruled out.
• Organic syndromes, such as urinary tract infections, obstructions, or anatomical
conditions, are found most often in children who experience both nocturnal and
diurnal enuresis combined with urinary frequency and urgency.

4. • The organic features include
– genitourinary pathology (structural, neurological, and infectious) such as
• obstructive uropathy,
• spina bifida occulta, and
• cystitis;
– other organic disorders that can cause polyuria and enuresis, such as
• diabetes mellitus and
• diabetes insipidus;
– disturbances of consciousness and sleep, such as
• seizures,
• intoxication, and
• sleepwalking disorder, during which a child urinates;
– adverse effects from treatment with antipsychotics (e.g., thioridazine [Mellaril]).

5. • Enuresis is often self-limited, and a child with enuresis may have a
spontaneous remission without psychological sequelae.
• Most such children find their symptoms ego-dystonic and enjoy enhanced
self-esteem and improved social confidence when they become continent.
• Enuresis after at least one dry year usually begins between the ages of 5 and
8 years; if it occurs much later, especially during adulthood, organic causes
must be investigated.
• Some evidence indicates that late onset of enuresis in children is more
frequently associated with a concomitant psychiatric difficulty than is
enuresis without at least one dry year.
• Relapses occur in children with enuresis who are becoming dry
spontaneously and in those who are being treated.

6. • The significant emotional and social difficulties of these
children usually include
– poor self-image,
– decreased self-esteem,
– social embarrassment and restriction, and
– intrafamilial conflict.
• The course of children with enuresis may be influenced by
whether they receive appropriate evaluation and treatment
for common comorbid disorders such as ADHD.

7. • A treatment plan for typical enuresis can be developed after
organic causes of urinary dysfunction have been ruled out.
• Modalities that have been used successfully for enuresis
include both behavioral and pharmacological interventions.
• The first step in any treatment plan is to review appropriate
toilet training.
• If toilet training was not attempted, the parents and the
patient should be guided in this undertaking.

8. • Record-keeping is helpful in determining a baseline and
following the child's progress and may itself be a reinforcer.
– A star chart may be particularly helpful.
• Other useful techniques include restricting fluids before bed
and night lifting to toilet train the child.
• Another basic intervention for those children with enuresis
and bowel dysfunction is to assess whether chronic
constipation is contributing to urinary dysfunction, and
consider increasing dietary fiber to diminish constipation.

9. • Classic conditioning with the bell (or buzzer) and pad apparatus is
generally the most effective treatment for enuresis, with dryness
resulting in more than 50 percent of cases.
• The treatment is equally effective in children with and without
concomitant mental disorders, and no evidence suggests symptom
substitution.
• Difficulties may include child and family noncompliance, improper
use of the apparatus, and relapse.
• Bladder training - encouragement or reward for delaying micturition
for increasing times during waking hours - has also been used.
• Although sometimes effective, this method is decidedly inferior to
the bell and pad.

10. • Medication is considered when enuresis is causing impairment in
social, family, and school function and behavioral, dietary, and fluid
restriction have not been efficacious.
• When the problem interferes significantly with a child's
functioning, several medications can be considered, although the
problem often recurs as soon as medications are withdrawn.
1. Imipramin
2. Desmopressin
3. The tricyclic drugs
4. Reboxetine

11. 1. Imipramine (Tofranil) is efficacious and has been approved for use in
treating childhood enuresis, primarily on a short-term basis.
– Initially, up to 30 percent of patients with enuresis stay dry, and up
to 85 percent wet less frequently than before treatment.
– The success often does not last, however, and tolerance can
develop after 6 weeks of therapy.
– Once the drug is discontinued, relapse and enuresis at former
frequencies usually occur within a few months.
– The drug's adverse effects, which include cardiotoxicity, are also a
serious problem.

12. 2. Desmopressin (DDAVP), an antidiuretic compound that is available as an
intranasal spray, has shown some initial success in reducing enuresis.
– Reduction of enuresis has varied from 10 to 90 percent with the use of
desmopressin.
– In most studies, enuresis recurred shortly after discontinuation of this
medication.
– Adverse effects that can occur with desmopressin include
headache, nasal congestion, epistaxis, and stomachache.
– The most serious adverse effect reported with the use of desmopressin
to treat enuresis was a hyponatremic seizure experienced by a child.

13. 3. The tricyclic drugs are not currently used frequently for
enuresis because of their risks and reports of sudden death in
several children with ADHD who were taking desipramine
(Norpramin, Pertofrane).
4. Reboxetine (Edronax, Vestra), a norepinephrine reuptake
inhibitor with a noncardiotoxic side effect profile has recently
been investigated as a safer alternative to imipramine in the
treatment of childhood enuresis.

14. • Psychotherapy may be useful in dealing with the
coexisting psychiatric problems and the
emotional and family difficulties that arise
secondary to chronic enuresis.
Although many psychological and psychoanalytic
theories regarding enuresis have been
advanced, controlled studies have found that
psychotherapy alone is not effective in the short-
term treatment of enuresis.

15. • In the revision of International Statistical
Classification of Diseases and Related Health
Problems (ICD-10), nonorganic encopresis and
nonorganic enuresis are classified as other
behavioral and emotional disorders with onset
usually occurring in childhood or adolescence.

16. ICD-10 Diagnostic Criteria for Nonorganic Encopresis
A.The child repeatedly passes feces in places that are inappropriate for the
purpose (e.g., clothing, floor), either involuntarily or intentionally. (The disorder
may involve overflow incontinence secondary to functional fecal retention.)
B.The child's chronological and mental age is at least 4 years.
C.There is at least one encopretic event per month.
D.Duration of the disorder is at least 6 months.
E.There is no organic condition that constitutes a sufficient cause for the
encopretic events.

17. ICD-10 Diagnostic Criteria for Nonorganic Enuresis
A.The child's chronological and mental age is at least 5 years.
B.Involuntary or intentional voiding of urine into bed or clothes occurs at least
twice a month in children aged under 7 years, and at least once a month in
children aged 7 years or more.
C.The enuresis is not a consequence of epileptic attacks or of neurological
incontinence, and not a direct consequence of structural abnormalities of the
urinary tract or any other nonpsychiatric medical condition.
D.There is no evidence of any other psychiatric disorder that meets the criteria
for other ICD-10 categories.
E.Duration of the disorder is at least 3 months.