1. Energy Systems andEnergy Systems and
Human FitnessHuman Fitness
Fitness and training principlesFitness and training principles

2. FitnessFitness
The World Health Organisation defines fitness as:The World Health Organisation defines fitness as:
The ability to carry out daily tasks (work and play) withThe ability to carry out daily tasks (work and play) with
vigour and alertness, without undue fatigue and withvigour and alertness, without undue fatigue and with
ample reserve energy, to enjoy leisure time pursuits andample reserve energy, to enjoy leisure time pursuits and
to meet unforseen emergencies. (Williams, P (et al),to meet unforseen emergencies. (Williams, P (et al),
page 76, 1999)page 76, 1999)
Health refers to the absence of disease or illnessHealth refers to the absence of disease or illness
whereas physical fitness is an individual matter relatedwhereas physical fitness is an individual matter related
to the specific needs of each individual and theto the specific needs of each individual and the
requirements of their sport.requirements of their sport.

3. Components of FitnessComponents of Fitness
1. Health related (physiological) components
• Cardiorespiratory endurance/aerobic
power
• Muscular strength
• Local muscular endurance
• Anaerobic power
• Flexibility
• Body composition
2. Sport (motor skill) related components
• Speed
• Muscular power
• Agility
• Coordination
• Balance
• Reaction time

4. Energy
Anaerobic
Aerobic
ATP-PC System Lactic Acid System Oxygen System
Anaerobic power and speed
Local muscular endurance cardio-
Muscular strength respiratory
Muscular power endurance
Agility
Balance
Reaction time

5. Components of fitnessComponents of fitness
Cardiorespiratory Endurance / Aerobic PowerCardiorespiratory Endurance / Aerobic Power
 This is the ability of the heart, lungs and blood vesselsThis is the ability of the heart, lungs and blood vessels
(circulatory and respiratory systems) to deliver oxygen and(circulatory and respiratory systems) to deliver oxygen and
nutrients to the tissues of the body and to remove waste productsnutrients to the tissues of the body and to remove waste products
such as carbon dioxide. It is also known as aerobic endurance,such as carbon dioxide. It is also known as aerobic endurance,
cardiovascular fitness or aerobic capacity.cardiovascular fitness or aerobic capacity.
 Allows an individual to perform tasks involving the whole body forAllows an individual to perform tasks involving the whole body for
extended periods of time at a sub maximal intensityextended periods of time at a sub maximal intensity
 Fitness Test – 20-metre shuttle-runFitness Test – 20-metre shuttle-run
Muscular StrengthMuscular Strength
 This is the ability of your muscles to exert a force in a singleThis is the ability of your muscles to exert a force in a single
maximal contraction. It is important in sports where a positionmaximal contraction. It is important in sports where a position
needs to be acquired and maintained against an opponent orneeds to be acquired and maintained against an opponent or
where an object has to be forcefully moved.where an object has to be forcefully moved.
 Combines with speed to produce Muscular PowerCombines with speed to produce Muscular Power
 Fitness test – Grip strengthFitness test – Grip strength

6. Components of fitnessComponents of fitness
Local Muscular EnduranceLocal Muscular Endurance
 This is the ability of a muscle or group of muscles to
sustain an activity for a period of time at less than
maximal effort. Local fatigue (rather than general
exhaustion) is the limiting factor. It includes
activities such as push-ups, sit-ups and chin-ups. A
major limiting factor of local muscular endurance is
an athlete’s ability to tolerate lactic acid.
 Fitness test: Sit-ups, push-ups and pull-ups.
Anaerobic PowerAnaerobic Power
 This is the ability to produce energy quickly (without
using oxygen). The efficiency of ATP-PC and lactic
acid energy systems plays an important role within
this fitness component. Covers two types of effort:
 maximal efforts <10secs
 near maximal effort for up to 2 mins

7. Components of fitnessComponents of fitness
FlexibilityFlexibility
 This refers to the range of possible movement about a joint orThis refers to the range of possible movement about a joint or
sequence of joints. Muscles, tendons, ligaments and jointsequence of joints. Muscles, tendons, ligaments and joint
structure affect it. It is important for injury prevention. Flexibilitystructure affect it. It is important for injury prevention. Flexibility
can be either static or dynamic. Dynamic or active flexibility iscan be either static or dynamic. Dynamic or active flexibility is
concerned with how easily a limb can be moved through its rangeconcerned with how easily a limb can be moved through its range
of motions when executing a skill such as the arm action inof motions when executing a skill such as the arm action in
backstroke. Static flexibility is concerned with determining thebackstroke. Static flexibility is concerned with determining the
ability to move a joint to its maximum range of motions such asability to move a joint to its maximum range of motions such as
doing the splits.doing the splits.
 The structure of a joint affects flexibility. The more stable a joint,The structure of a joint affects flexibility. The more stable a joint,
the greater the strength but the less flexibility it allows. Forthe greater the strength but the less flexibility it allows. For
example, the ball and socket joint of the hip is more stable thanexample, the ball and socket joint of the hip is more stable than
the shoulder joint, but allows less movement.the shoulder joint, but allows less movement.
 Fitness tests: sit and reach testFitness tests: sit and reach test
Body compositionBody composition
 The relative percentage of muscle, fat, bone and other tissue ofThe relative percentage of muscle, fat, bone and other tissue of
which a body is composedwhich a body is composed
 Fitness test – skin foldsFitness test – skin folds

8. Components of fitnessComponents of fitness
SpeedSpeed
 Speed is the ability to move the whole body or a body partSpeed is the ability to move the whole body or a body part
from one point to another in the shortest possible timefrom one point to another in the shortest possible time
such as sprinting, speed skating and the run up in longsuch as sprinting, speed skating and the run up in long
jump. Can be present as whole body speed or body partjump. Can be present as whole body speed or body part
speed. Speed relates to other fitness components forspeed. Speed relates to other fitness components for
example speed is dependant upon strength and muscularexample speed is dependant upon strength and muscular
power is dependent upon strength and speed. Duringpower is dependent upon strength and speed. During
speed events however, an athlete has the ability to reachspeed events however, an athlete has the ability to reach
maximum energy capacity.maximum energy capacity.
 Fitness test – Running 40 metre sprintsFitness test – Running 40 metre sprints
Muscular PowerMuscular Power
 This is the ability to use strength rapidly to produce anThis is the ability to use strength rapidly to produce an
explosive maximal effort. It is dependent upon theexplosive maximal effort. It is dependent upon the
interaction of strength and speed. Relies on anaerobicinteraction of strength and speed. Relies on anaerobic
energy production and white twitch muscle fibres.energy production and white twitch muscle fibres.
Examples include shot put, discus, hammer throw andExamples include shot put, discus, hammer throw and
jumping events as well as the rebound in basketball.jumping events as well as the rebound in basketball.
 Fitness test: standing long jump and vertical jumpFitness test: standing long jump and vertical jump

9. Components of fitnessComponents of fitness
AgilityAgility
 The ability to rapidly and accurately change the directionThe ability to rapidly and accurately change the direction
of the body in space. It is related to power, speed,of the body in space. It is related to power, speed,
flexibility, balance and coordination. Activities thatflexibility, balance and coordination. Activities that
exemplify agility include dodging; weaving and turning thatexemplify agility include dodging; weaving and turning that
are commonly seen in football, netball, tennis, squash andare commonly seen in football, netball, tennis, squash and
basketball.basketball.
 Fitness test: Illinois agility testFitness test: Illinois agility test
CoordinationCoordination
 This can be described as the smooth and accurate flow ofThis can be described as the smooth and accurate flow of
movement in the execution of a physical task. It involvesmovement in the execution of a physical task. It involves
the nervous system and the musculoskeletal systemthe nervous system and the musculoskeletal system
working together. Examples include hand-eye and foot-working together. Examples include hand-eye and foot-
eye coordination in activities such as the lay up ineye coordination in activities such as the lay up in
basketball, the spike in volleyball, the racquet swing inbasketball, the spike in volleyball, the racquet swing in
tennis and ball control in soccer.tennis and ball control in soccer.
 Fitness test: Half flip stick testFitness test: Half flip stick test

10. Components of fitnessComponents of fitness
BalanceBalance
 This is the ability to maintain the equilibrium of the body.This is the ability to maintain the equilibrium of the body.
For example static balance involves maintaining theFor example static balance involves maintaining the
equilibrium in one fixed position such as a gymnastequilibrium in one fixed position such as a gymnast
holding on the parallel bars. Dynamic balance involvesholding on the parallel bars. Dynamic balance involves
maintaining the equilibrium while moving including amaintaining the equilibrium while moving including a
gymnast swinging on the parallel bars.gymnast swinging on the parallel bars.
 Fitness test: Standing static balanceFitness test: Standing static balance
Reaction TimeReaction Time
 This refers to the athlete’s ability to process informationThis refers to the athlete’s ability to process information
via the nervous system and react. Time elapsed betweenvia the nervous system and react. Time elapsed between
stimulus and initiation of a response to the stimulus (Itstimulus and initiation of a response to the stimulus (It
involves the time it takes for the brain to receiveinvolves the time it takes for the brain to receive
information from the senses, process the information,information from the senses, process the information,
formulate a response and transmit this response toformulate a response and transmit this response to
nerves and finally for the muscles to contract). Examplesnerves and finally for the muscles to contract). Examples
include the delay between the starter’s gun and theinclude the delay between the starter’s gun and the
athlete blasting out of the blocks.athlete blasting out of the blocks.
 Fitness test: Latham Reaction Time testFitness test: Latham Reaction Time test

11. Principles of trainingPrinciples of training
When applied to a program, trainingWhen applied to a program, training
principles can positively affect anprinciples can positively affect an
athlete’s performance. Someathlete’s performance. Some
training principles include:training principles include:
 SpecificitySpecificity
 Progressive overloadProgressive overload
 FITT:FITT:
 FrequencyFrequency
 IntensityIntensity
 TimeTime
 TypeType
 VarietyVariety
 ReversibilityReversibility

12. SpecificitySpecificity
The athlete must train the specific:The athlete must train the specific:
 Energy systems usedEnergy systems used
 Fitness components usedFitness components used
 Muscle groups usedMuscle groups used
 Skills usedSkills used
This training principle also allows the athlete toThis training principle also allows the athlete to
choose the most suitable training methods forchoose the most suitable training methods for
improving performance.improving performance.
Example – an endurance athlete would include aExample – an endurance athlete would include a
large amount of continuous running into theirlarge amount of continuous running into their
training program to develop aerobic capacity andtraining program to develop aerobic capacity and
increase cardiorespiratory efficiency. On the otherincrease cardiorespiratory efficiency. On the other
hand, a weightlifter would incorporate a significanthand, a weightlifter would incorporate a significant
amount of weights into their training program toamount of weights into their training program to
develop muscular strength.develop muscular strength.
Training should be specific to the physiologicalTraining should be specific to the physiological
adaptations required at the time.adaptations required at the time.

13. Progressive OverloadProgressive Overload
Improvements in performance occur as a result ofImprovements in performance occur as a result of
adaptation to stress. An increase in the trainingadaptation to stress. An increase in the training
workload will bring about physiological changes thatworkload will bring about physiological changes that
make the body more capable of coping withmake the body more capable of coping with
stresses that may be placed upon it. To gainstresses that may be placed upon it. To gain
maximum benefits from training, workloads must bemaximum benefits from training, workloads must be
gradually adjusted upwards as adaptation to stressgradually adjusted upwards as adaptation to stress
occurs which is also known as progressiveoccurs which is also known as progressive
overload.overload.
Increases in workload can lead to possibleIncreases in workload can lead to possible
excessive stress, injury or illness. ‘No pain, no gain’excessive stress, injury or illness. ‘No pain, no gain’
is a popular misconception. There is no need foris a popular misconception. There is no need for
pain during physiological adaptations to training.pain during physiological adaptations to training.
Pain is an indicator that something is wrong andPain is an indicator that something is wrong and
that training should be modified.that training should be modified.

14. FITT principlesFITT principles
One way of monitoring the application of the specificOne way of monitoring the application of the specific
overload principle is the inclusion of the FITT principlesoverload principle is the inclusion of the FITT principles
into a training program.into a training program.
 FrequencyFrequency: refers to how often you train, specifically how: refers to how often you train, specifically how
many days per week. Individuals seeking to improve theirmany days per week. Individuals seeking to improve their
aerobic fitness must train at least 3-4 times per week.aerobic fitness must train at least 3-4 times per week.
 IntensityIntensity: refers to how hard you train. To apply the: refers to how hard you train. To apply the
overload principle in terms of intensity, the heart rate mustoverload principle in terms of intensity, the heart rate must
be increased to a target heart rate. Heart rate shouldbe increased to a target heart rate. Heart rate should
remain within the target zone for at least 20 minutesremain within the target zone for at least 20 minutes
fitness is to improve. It is vital that a critical thresholdfitness is to improve. It is vital that a critical threshold
exists and that unless that point is reached andexists and that unless that point is reached and
maintained, then improvements cannot be made.maintained, then improvements cannot be made.
Exercise levels that allow the heart rate to remain withinExercise levels that allow the heart rate to remain within
the target zone will result in the training effect and thethe target zone will result in the training effect and the
body will make the appropriate adaptations.body will make the appropriate adaptations.
 Critical Threshold (CT) = Resting HR (RHR) + 60% ofCritical Threshold (CT) = Resting HR (RHR) + 60% of
Working HR (WHR)Working HR (WHR)
 WHR = MHR – RHRWHR = MHR – RHR (MHR = 220 - your age)(MHR = 220 - your age)

15. FITT principlesFITT principles
TimeTime: refers to how long the training: refers to how long the training
session will last. To be effective, trainingsession will last. To be effective, training
sessions must last longer than 20 minutessessions must last longer than 20 minutes
and the heart rate must stay in the targetand the heart rate must stay in the target
zone for that period of time. The bestzone for that period of time. The best
results occur when training lasts fromresults occur when training lasts from
between 30-60 minutes.between 30-60 minutes.
TypeType: Activities need to be specific for the: Activities need to be specific for the
type of improvement desired. To improvetype of improvement desired. To improve
cardio-respiratory endurance, activitiescardio-respiratory endurance, activities
should be aerobic, being continuous andshould be aerobic, being continuous and
sustained throughout the exercise. This issustained throughout the exercise. This is
so the oxygen system is the predominantso the oxygen system is the predominant
system for energy requirements. Suchsystem for energy requirements. Such
activities include jogging, cycling andactivities include jogging, cycling and
swimming.swimming.

16. FITT principlesFITT principles
Summary of FITT principles:
 F – times per week = 3 or >
 I – 75% of MHR = 220 - age x 0.75
= Target Zone
 T = 20-30 minutes with HR in target
zone
 T = continuous aerobic activity with
HR in target zone to develop cardio
respiratory fitness.

17. Variety and ReversibilityVariety and Reversibility
VarietyVariety
 Provided that the major principle of specificity is notProvided that the major principle of specificity is not
ignored, variety in training activities can beignored, variety in training activities can be
beneficial. It can assist in maintaining interest andbeneficial. It can assist in maintaining interest and
motivation although it doesn’t specifically aidmotivation although it doesn’t specifically aid
performance.performance.
ReversibilityReversibility
 The effects of training programs are reversible. InThe effects of training programs are reversible. In
the same way that the body responds to training bythe same way that the body responds to training by
improving the level of fitness, lack of training causesimproving the level of fitness, lack of training causes
the opposite to occur. The reversibility processthe opposite to occur. The reversibility process
applies equally to aerobic, anaerobic and strengthapplies equally to aerobic, anaerobic and strength
training programs.training programs.
 Duration of training has an effect on reversibility. ADuration of training has an effect on reversibility. A
fast build up will cause a rapid loss if trainingfast build up will cause a rapid loss if training
ceases, whereas a slow build up will result in a slowceases, whereas a slow build up will result in a slow
loss.loss.

18. Training MethodsTraining Methods
These are the different types of training undertaken toThese are the different types of training undertaken to
achieve the desired improvements in fitness.achieve the desired improvements in fitness.
Continuous TrainingContinuous Training
This type of training involves performing an activity for anThis type of training involves performing an activity for an
extended period of time, (usually longer than 20 minutes)extended period of time, (usually longer than 20 minutes)
at a required intensity, without a rest period. It is subat a required intensity, without a rest period. It is sub
maximal and requires an intensity of 65 – 85% of HRmaximal and requires an intensity of 65 – 85% of HR
max. This is called themax. This is called the Target Training ZoneTarget Training Zone..
Continuous training works the aerobic energy system andContinuous training works the aerobic energy system and
examples include swimming, jogging, rowing, cross-examples include swimming, jogging, rowing, cross-
country skiing and cycling.country skiing and cycling.
Overloading continuous Training:Overloading continuous Training:
To incur physiological adaptations progressive overload isTo incur physiological adaptations progressive overload is
necessary and can be implemented by manipulating thenecessary and can be implemented by manipulating the
following variables:following variables:
 Increase the duration of work (length)Increase the duration of work (length)
 Increase the intensity of work by:Increase the intensity of work by:
 Increasing the distanceIncreasing the distance
 Decreasing the time taken to complete the same distance.Decreasing the time taken to complete the same distance.
 FrequencyFrequency

20. Interval trainingInterval training
This is a type of training in which periods of work areThis is a type of training in which periods of work are
alternated with periods of rest or recovery. Each energyalternated with periods of rest or recovery. Each energy
system can be developed, depending on the length of thesystem can be developed, depending on the length of the
work and rest periods. The design of this training allowswork and rest periods. The design of this training allows
for periods of activity where the energy fuels ATP and PCfor periods of activity where the energy fuels ATP and PC
are depleted. By following the work period with a restare depleted. By following the work period with a rest
period there is time for the replenishment of these fuels.period there is time for the replenishment of these fuels.
This provides the athlete with enough energy to performThis provides the athlete with enough energy to perform
at a high intensity during the work period and recoverat a high intensity during the work period and recover
during the rest period. The length and time of the workduring the rest period. The length and time of the work
interval determines which energy system and fitnessinterval determines which energy system and fitness
components are predominately trained.components are predominately trained.
Interval training produces very specific training effectsInterval training produces very specific training effects
including efficiency in the desired energy system. Theincluding efficiency in the desired energy system. The
depletion-replenishment pattern allows the capacity of thedepletion-replenishment pattern allows the capacity of the
ATP-PC and lactic acid system to be increased. WhenATP-PC and lactic acid system to be increased. When
developing interval training, the following factors can bedeveloping interval training, the following factors can be
altered to meet the specific needs of each sport:altered to meet the specific needs of each sport:

21. Variable Description Example
Work interval distance The distance of the work 60 metres
Work interval time Time in which work must be completed 8 seconds
Rest interval time Time between work intervals 40 secs
Rest interval type The nature of rest between work intervals Walk
Work intensity How hard work is to be done (% of HR) 95%
Repetitions Number of work periods in a sequence 8
Sets Number of repetition sequences 3
Frequency Number of training sessions per week 3
Planning Interval trainingPlanning Interval training

22. Examples of Interval trainingExamples of Interval training
for runningfor running
Energy
system
Interv
al
distanc
e
Interv
al time
Work
intensi
ty
Reps Sets Rest
interva
l
Work
to rest
ratio
Traini
ng
frequ
ency
Suitable
sports
ATP-
PC
60m 8 secs 95%
HR
max
8 3 40 sec 1:5 3 100m
Team
Sports
Lactic
Acid
400m 75
secs
85%
HR
max
4 2 150
sec
1:2 3 400m
Team
Sports
Aerobi
c
1000m 180
secs
75 -
85%
HR
max
3 2 180
sec
1:1 4 - 5 1500m
10 km
Team
Sports

23. Work to rest ratioWork to rest ratio
Is established by breaking an activity into work and restIs established by breaking an activity into work and rest
components. It indicates how much work is completed incomponents. It indicates how much work is completed in
an activity in proportion to how much rest is available.an activity in proportion to how much rest is available.
Formula for developing an Interval Training Program:Formula for developing an Interval Training Program:
1.1. Divide the personal best time by the percentage of HRDivide the personal best time by the percentage of HR
max to calculate the work interval time (7.5 sec / 95% =max to calculate the work interval time (7.5 sec / 95% =
7.8 seconds)7.8 seconds)
2.2. Multiply the work interval time by the appropriate energyMultiply the work interval time by the appropriate energy
system ratio to establish rest interval timesystem ratio to establish rest interval time
3.3. Use a higher number of repetitions and sets for shorterUse a higher number of repetitions and sets for shorter
work intervalswork intervals
1:5 Phosphate energy system (ATP-PC)
1:2 Lactic Acid Energy system
1:1 Aerobic Energy system

24. Overloading Interval TrainingOverloading Interval Training
To incur physiological adaptationsTo incur physiological adaptations
progressive overload is necessaryprogressive overload is necessary
and can be implemented byand can be implemented by
manipulating the following variables:manipulating the following variables:
 Increase the duration of workIncrease the duration of work
 Increase the intensity of work by:Increase the intensity of work by:
 Decreasing the duration of restDecreasing the duration of rest
 Increasing the number of sets perIncreasing the number of sets per
sessionsession
 Increasing the number of repetitions perIncreasing the number of repetitions per
set.set.

25. Fartlek trainingFartlek training
Fartlek training is a variation of continuous training.Fartlek training is a variation of continuous training.
It involves continuous activity with short bursts ofIt involves continuous activity with short bursts of
intense work at regular stages throughout theintense work at regular stages throughout the
activity (changes in the intensity or adjustments toactivity (changes in the intensity or adjustments to
the training environment). Fartlek is a Swedishthe training environment). Fartlek is a Swedish
term meaning ‘speed play’. The changes interm meaning ‘speed play’. The changes in
intensity use all three energy systems, which canintensity use all three energy systems, which can
resemble specific activities and simulates the natureresemble specific activities and simulates the nature
of team sports. An example is an athlete, whileof team sports. An example is an athlete, while
running, performs 5-10 seconds of intense workrunning, performs 5-10 seconds of intense work
every 3-4 minutes.every 3-4 minutes.
Overloading Fartlek training:Overloading Fartlek training:
 Increasing the frequency of the intense burstsIncreasing the frequency of the intense bursts
 Increasing the duration of the intense burstsIncreasing the duration of the intense bursts
 Increasing the distance coveredIncreasing the distance covered
 Covering the same distance in a reduced timeCovering the same distance in a reduced time
 Running against the windRunning against the wind
 Running in sandRunning in sand

26. Circuit trainingCircuit training
Circuit training involves working at a number ofCircuit training involves working at a number of
activity stations in a sequence. There are generallyactivity stations in a sequence. There are generally
5 – 15 stations that focus on specific components of5 – 15 stations that focus on specific components of
fitness. Circuits are able to develop a number offitness. Circuits are able to develop a number of
fitness components, including aerobic power,fitness components, including aerobic power,
strength, power, local muscular endurance andstrength, power, local muscular endurance and
agility.agility.
 There are three types of circuit:There are three types of circuit:
 Fixed load – each station has a set number of reps toFixed load – each station has a set number of reps to
be completedbe completed
 Fixed time – completion of as many reps as possibleFixed time – completion of as many reps as possible
in the allotted time.in the allotted time.
 Individual load – individually designed where theIndividual load – individually designed where the
person performs the maximum reps at each stationperson performs the maximum reps at each station
for one minute. These are then halved and thefor one minute. These are then halved and the
person completes the circuit 3 times to determine anperson completes the circuit 3 times to determine an
initial time. Target time is then set at two thirds of theinitial time. Target time is then set at two thirds of the
initial time.initial time.

27. Circuit TrainingCircuit Training
Stations 1 min score Half score Date Date
Skipping 50 25
Sit-ups 60 30
Push-ups 50 25
Agility run 6 3
Basketball throw 20 10
Step-ups 50 25
Medicine ball throw 20 10
Ladder climb 6 3
Shuttle run 10 5
Initial time 21 min
Target time 14 min

28. Overloading Circuit TrainingOverloading Circuit Training
 Increasing the resistanceIncreasing the resistance
 Increasing the repetitionsIncreasing the repetitions
 Increasing the repetitions but decreasingIncreasing the repetitions but decreasing
the time it takes to complete themthe time it takes to complete them
 Increasing the number of laps of the circuit.Increasing the number of laps of the circuit.
 Changing the length or type of recovery.Changing the length or type of recovery.
The variety of this type of training isThe variety of this type of training is
particularly beneficial plus not a lot ofparticularly beneficial plus not a lot of
equipment is required.equipment is required.

29. Strength/Weight/Resistance TrainingStrength/Weight/Resistance Training
Builds strength, power, or local muscular endurance by exercising muscleBuilds strength, power, or local muscular endurance by exercising muscle
groups against a resistance. It is important to identify the muscle groupsgroups against a resistance. It is important to identify the muscle groups
involved and the actions performed that reflect the needs of your sport.involved and the actions performed that reflect the needs of your sport.
Strength training needs to be performed a minimum of 3 times a week for atStrength training needs to be performed a minimum of 3 times a week for at
least 30 minutes for a minimum of 6 weeks, for adaptation to occur.least 30 minutes for a minimum of 6 weeks, for adaptation to occur.
Generally it is high weights and low reps for strength and low weights – highGenerally it is high weights and low reps for strength and low weights – high
reps for endurance.reps for endurance.
There are 3 types of resistance training:There are 3 types of resistance training:
1.1. ISOTONIC (free weights)ISOTONIC (free weights)
 Dynamic and involves lifting a set weight through the range of motion of aDynamic and involves lifting a set weight through the range of motion of a
joint.joint.
 There are two distinct phases, theThere are two distinct phases, the concentric phaseconcentric phase (where the muscle(where the muscle
contracts against the force of gravity) and thecontracts against the force of gravity) and the eccentric phaseeccentric phase (where the(where the
muscle lengthens under tension with the force of gravity)muscle lengthens under tension with the force of gravity)
 The muscle is not being trained maximally at the strongest point ofThe muscle is not being trained maximally at the strongest point of
contraction.contraction.
2.2. ISOMETRIC (fixed resistance)ISOMETRIC (fixed resistance)
 Holding a muscle in one position while it contracts against a resistance.Holding a muscle in one position while it contracts against a resistance.
 Tension in the muscle increases but the muscle stays the same lengthTension in the muscle increases but the muscle stays the same length
 Effective in improving strength but only in the static positionEffective in improving strength but only in the static position
 Examples include pushing against a stationary resistance (handstand, crucifixExamples include pushing against a stationary resistance (handstand, crucifix
on the roman rings, martial arts and wrestling).on the roman rings, martial arts and wrestling).
3.3. ISOKINETIC (resistance by machines)ISOKINETIC (resistance by machines)
 Undertaken on Nautiliaus, Cybex, Biodex, or Hydrogym equipment.Undertaken on Nautiliaus, Cybex, Biodex, or Hydrogym equipment.
 Machines create resistance so that the muacles are worked maximallyMachines create resistance so that the muacles are worked maximally
through the full range not just the weakest points.through the full range not just the weakest points.
 Machines control momentum, velocity and direction of movement so completeMachines control momentum, velocity and direction of movement so complete

30. Overloading ResistanceOverloading Resistance
TrainingTraining
 Increase the resistanceIncrease the resistance
 Increase the repetitionsIncrease the repetitions
 Increasing the number of setsIncreasing the number of sets
 Increasing the frequencyIncreasing the frequency
 Changing the length or type ofChanging the length or type of
recovery.recovery.

31. PlyometricsPlyometrics
Aims to increase muscular power by firstly stretching aAims to increase muscular power by firstly stretching a
muscle, then contracting it in the shortest possible time. Itmuscle, then contracting it in the shortest possible time. It
is known as a stretch reflex or stretch shortening cycle.is known as a stretch reflex or stretch shortening cycle.
Plyometrics trains this reflex to make it faster and morePlyometrics trains this reflex to make it faster and more
forceful.forceful.
There is a general concern about the safety andThere is a general concern about the safety and
appropriateness of plyometrics. The following tableappropriateness of plyometrics. The following table
outlines the different stress levels and recovery time:outlines the different stress levels and recovery time:
Rating Recovery time Example
1 Very low stress Very rapid Jump rope, ankle
bounces
2 Low stress 1 day Tuck jumps
3 Moderate stress 1 – 2 days Stair jumps, short jumps
4 High stress 2 days Hops, bounds, long jumps
5 Very high stress 3 days Depth jumps

32. Flexibility TrainingFlexibility Training
Flexibility training improves the range of motion (ROM) at desired joints. ItFlexibility training improves the range of motion (ROM) at desired joints. It
is important for maximum performance. The requirements of flexibility varyis important for maximum performance. The requirements of flexibility vary
for each sport. In some sports, large range of joint motion is required infor each sport. In some sports, large range of joint motion is required in
order to perform certain skills. For improvements to occur trainingorder to perform certain skills. For improvements to occur training
frequency needs to be 3 – 4 times per week for a minimum of 4 weeks.frequency needs to be 3 – 4 times per week for a minimum of 4 weeks.
There are 4 types of stretching techniques, which can be used:There are 4 types of stretching techniques, which can be used:
 Static/ Passive stretching – taking the joint to its full range of motion andStatic/ Passive stretching – taking the joint to its full range of motion and
holding it for 20-30 seconds. This is the safest method and is mostholding it for 20-30 seconds. This is the safest method and is most
effective in warm-down after exercise.effective in warm-down after exercise.
 Active stretching – stretching as far as possible ten slowly contracting theActive stretching – stretching as far as possible ten slowly contracting the
agonist while relaxing the antagonist.agonist while relaxing the antagonist.
 Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) – involves fullyProprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) – involves fully
lengthening the muscle. A partner moves your muscle through the fulllengthening the muscle. A partner moves your muscle through the full
ROM until the first hint of discomfort, then provides resistance as yourROM until the first hint of discomfort, then provides resistance as your
muscle is contracted isometrically this is held for 6 seconds.muscle is contracted isometrically this is held for 6 seconds.
 Ballistic stretching – involves moving through ROM using the momentumBallistic stretching – involves moving through ROM using the momentum
created rather than muscle contractions (rhythmically bouncing tocreated rather than muscle contractions (rhythmically bouncing to
gradually increase the range of motion). This is potentially dangerous andgradually increase the range of motion). This is potentially dangerous and
only specifically conditioned athletes such as dancers and gymnastsonly specifically conditioned athletes such as dancers and gymnasts
should use this type of stretching.should use this type of stretching.

33. Training ProgramsTraining Programs
Training programs are designed to improve theTraining programs are designed to improve the
physiological capacity of an athlete that results in aphysiological capacity of an athlete that results in a
personal best performance. Undertaking an activitypersonal best performance. Undertaking an activity
analysis identifies the demands of the sport, andanalysis identifies the demands of the sport, and
training must be designed to develop physiologicaltraining must be designed to develop physiological
capacity to meet these demands.capacity to meet these demands.
When designing a training program for an athlete orWhen designing a training program for an athlete or
team, it is vital to identify the following:team, it is vital to identify the following:
 Predominant energy systemsPredominant energy systems
 Major muscle groupsMajor muscle groups
 Required fitness componentsRequired fitness components
Once these factors have been identified,Once these factors have been identified,
appropriate training methods can be decided.appropriate training methods can be decided.
Individual training sessions and the entire trainingIndividual training sessions and the entire training
year must be also developed and are detailed in theyear must be also developed and are detailed in the
following sections.following sections.

34. Training SessionsTraining Sessions
Each training session should include a warm up which includesEach training session should include a warm up which includes
flexibility exercises, followed by conditioning which includes skillflexibility exercises, followed by conditioning which includes skill
development and tactics and finally a cool down to enabledevelopment and tactics and finally a cool down to enable
recovery.recovery.
 Warm Up and StretchingWarm Up and Stretching
 A warm up stimulates the central nervous system and prepares theA warm up stimulates the central nervous system and prepares the
body physiologically and psychologically including activating thebody physiologically and psychologically including activating the
required energy systems, major joints and muscles. The athleterequired energy systems, major joints and muscles. The athlete
should experience increased blood flow, raised muscle temperatureshould experience increased blood flow, raised muscle temperature
and sweating in response to a warm up.and sweating in response to a warm up.
 Stretching is necessary so that the range of motion around a jointStretching is necessary so that the range of motion around a joint
can be increased. It also reduces the risk of injury and is morecan be increased. It also reduces the risk of injury and is more
beneficial after a warm up when the body is warm.beneficial after a warm up when the body is warm.
 ConditioningConditioning
 This period incorporates most of the training session. It includes skillThis period incorporates most of the training session. It includes skill
development, game tactics, demonstrations, technique analysis anddevelopment, game tactics, demonstrations, technique analysis and
discussion. It is designed on the specific requirements of the sportdiscussion. It is designed on the specific requirements of the sport
being played.being played.
 Cool Down/RecoveryCool Down/Recovery
 This period follows conditioning and is the reverse of the warm up.This period follows conditioning and is the reverse of the warm up.
This is achieved through gradually reducing the intensity of theThis is achieved through gradually reducing the intensity of the
activity and incorporating flexibility work. Cool down assists inactivity and incorporating flexibility work. Cool down assists in
recovery by dissipating lactic acid reducing muscle soreness and stiffrecovery by dissipating lactic acid reducing muscle soreness and stiff
joints.joints.

35. Activity Components Time (minutes)
No. of music tracks
1. Warm-up
Light aerobic activity using those
parts of the body required in
later vigorous movements ie
legs, trunk, shoulders, arms
5 minutes
2 tracks
1. Stretching
Slow, controlled stretching of body
parts to be used: may use PNF
or static stretches
5 minutes
2 tracks
1. Aerobic
Exercise routines, jogging, running,
dance exercises using large
muscle groups: non stop exercise
15 – 20 minutes
6 tracks
1. Strength /
tone
Using gravity, weights, sandbags or
partners for resistance:
exercises designed to improve
strength/tone of muscles
10 minutes
3 tracks
1. Cool-down
Recovery exercises to assist in
cardiovascular adjustments;
includes stretching to prevent
muscle soreness and maintain
flexibility
5 – 10 minutes
2 tracks
Framework for developing anFramework for developing an
aerobic floor class.aerobic floor class.

36. The training year andThe training year and
periodisationperiodisation
The training year can be divided into three mainThe training year can be divided into three main
periods including pre-season, competition and postperiods including pre-season, competition and post
season.season.
Pre-season (the Preparatory phase)Pre-season (the Preparatory phase)
 This period aims at providing a solid fitnessThis period aims at providing a solid fitness
foundation for the competition phase.foundation for the competition phase.
 Subphase 1 generally lasts 4 – 10 weeks and placesSubphase 1 generally lasts 4 – 10 weeks and places
emphasis on the aerobic energy system. The volumeemphasis on the aerobic energy system. The volume
of training is high, but the intensity begins low andof training is high, but the intensity begins low and
increases very slowly. Specialised programs toincreases very slowly. Specialised programs to
remedy any specific weaknesses should be continuedremedy any specific weaknesses should be continued
in this phase.in this phase.
 Subphase 2 lasts from 2 – 6 weeks and is a moreSubphase 2 lasts from 2 – 6 weeks and is a more
specific preparatory phase. There is a shift towardsspecific preparatory phase. There is a shift towards
more specific game related fitness and skill work.more specific game related fitness and skill work.
There is an increase in intensity with a slow decreaseThere is an increase in intensity with a slow decrease
in volume.in volume.
 Fitness testing is also carried out during this phase soFitness testing is also carried out during this phase so
that weaknesses can be amended.that weaknesses can be amended.

37. The training year andThe training year and
periodisationperiodisation
Competition (the in-season phase)Competition (the in-season phase)
 This stage generally lasts 4 – 6 months with an emphasis on skillThis stage generally lasts 4 – 6 months with an emphasis on skill
and strategy, whilst maintaining pre-season fitness. Because ofand strategy, whilst maintaining pre-season fitness. Because of
the demands of competition, not every session should be longthe demands of competition, not every session should be long
and intense. Sessions later in the week should be lighter andand intense. Sessions later in the week should be lighter and
less intense so that players are not still recovering from fatigueless intense so that players are not still recovering from fatigue
on competition day. Intensity of activity and drills performedon competition day. Intensity of activity and drills performed
should be aimed to have the same intensity as the competition.should be aimed to have the same intensity as the competition.
Post Season (the transition or off-season phase)Post Season (the transition or off-season phase)
 The off-season phase generally lasts 6 – 12 weeks and shouldThe off-season phase generally lasts 6 – 12 weeks and should
be both a psychological and physical break from your sport.be both a psychological and physical break from your sport.
 Athletes need to gradually reduce the level of activity but alsoAthletes need to gradually reduce the level of activity but also
avoid detraining. Maintenance of a suitable level of fitness andavoid detraining. Maintenance of a suitable level of fitness and
‘playing weight’ is required.‘playing weight’ is required.
 The off-season period should also include specialised weightThe off-season period should also include specialised weight
training and skill development to remedy any diagnosedtraining and skill development to remedy any diagnosed
weaknesses. This may include low intensity weight training andweaknesses. This may include low intensity weight training and
running twice a week, supplemented by active recreationalrunning twice a week, supplemented by active recreational
games for enjoyment.games for enjoyment.

38. The training yearThe training year
Pre-season In-season Off-season
Pre-season: Develop energy
systems
Practice
individual skills
Develop team
play patterns
(3 months)
In-season:
Practice
individual skills and
team play
Maintain energy
systems
(5 months)
Off-season: Remain
physically active
Remedy
diagnosed
weaknesses in
physical profile
(4 months)

39. Physiological Responses andPhysiological Responses and
Adaptations to ExerciseAdaptations to Exercise
Responses Adaptations
HEART
Heart rate increases.
Cardiac output increases.
SV increases from resting level.
Coronary circulation increases.
Max HR may be achieved.
Resting HR decreases.
SV increases during rest & work.
Blood supply to heart muscle
increases during rest & work.
Volume of left ventricle increases
after aerobic training.
Hypertrophy of the left ventricle
after anaerobic training.
Max HR remains the same.
HR at sub-max workloads falls.
Cardiac output at max workloads
increases.CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Systolic blood pressure increases.
Speed of blood flow increases.
Body temperature increases.
Arterio-venous O2 diff increases.
Vasodilation occurs.
Redistribution of blood flow.
Maintained elasticity of artery
walls.
Diminished fatty deposits.
Low risk of high blood pressure
and cardiovascular disease.
Capillary supply to heart and
skeletal muscles increases.
Blood volume increases.
Hemoglobin count increases.
Oxygen-carrying capacity of blood

40. Responses Adaptations
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 Breathing rate increases.
 TV rises from 0.5L to a max of 5L per
breath.
 Pulmonary diffusion increases.
 Lung ventilation increases from 7.5L/min
to a max of 150L/min.
 Efficiency of intercostals muscles
increases.
 Elasticity of lungs improves.
 Lung volumes increase.
 Pulmonary diffusion increases.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 Motor unit recruitment increases, leading
to greater strength of contraction.
 Temp increases due to increased blood
flow.
 ATP production increases.
 Phosphates in muscle cell increase.
 O2 supply to muscles increase.
 Enzyme activity increases.
 Glycogen, triglycerides and PC all deplete
to produce ATP.
 Production of LA, CO2 and other by-
products increases.
Aerobic Training Effects
 Capillarisation to muscles increase.
 Mitochondria increase in size and number.
 Myoglobin concentration increases.
 Triglyceride stores increase.
 Glycogen stores increase.
 Oxidative enzymes increase.
 Lactic acid tolerance increases.
 Red muscle fibres hypertrophy to a small
degree.
 Glycogen sparing as fats are used in
preference during sub-max efforts.
Anaerobic Training Effects
 Hypertrophy of muscles occur (size
increase of fast twitch).
 Glycogen stores increase.
 Capillarisation increases.
 PC stores increase.
 Muscle stores of ATP increase.
 Production of LA at sub-max workload
falls.
 Speed and force of contraction

41. OTHER
Perspiration rate increases.
Oxygen consumption increases.
Arterio-venous oxygen difference
increases slightly at maximal
efforts.
VO2 max increases by up to 30%.
Recovery HR returns to resting
levels faster.
Lactate thresholds increases.

42. Evaluating Training ProgramsEvaluating Training Programs
To evaluate a training program efficiently, it is critical thatTo evaluate a training program efficiently, it is critical that
accurate and valid pre-tests and post-tests fitness areaccurate and valid pre-tests and post-tests fitness are
conducted. Results of before the training program andconducted. Results of before the training program and
after completing the training program should give a goodafter completing the training program should give a good
guide as to whether or not the program is successful.guide as to whether or not the program is successful.
Key factors in evaluating a training program include:Key factors in evaluating a training program include:
 Has there been improvement in:Has there been improvement in:
 Test results?Test results?
 Performance?Performance?
 Did I achieve my training program goals?Did I achieve my training program goals?
 Have any factors enhanced participation in the trainingHave any factors enhanced participation in the training
program?program?
 Was the training schedule adhered to?Was the training schedule adhered to?
 How can the training program be improved?How can the training program be improved?
 Choose a different or more suitable method of training or modifyChoose a different or more suitable method of training or modify
the current method?the current method?
 Apply the principles of training (specificity, overload, frequencyApply the principles of training (specificity, overload, frequency
etc) more effectively? How?etc) more effectively? How?
 Add more interest or variety?Add more interest or variety?

43. BibliographyBibliography
Information has been taken from the following resourcesInformation has been taken from the following resources
for an educational purpose only.for an educational purpose only.
Bradford, M., (1998),Bradford, M., (1998), Queensland Health and PhysicalQueensland Health and Physical
EducationEducation, Macmillan Education Australia, South Yarra., Macmillan Education Australia, South Yarra.
Fitzgibbon, L. (et al), (1992),Fitzgibbon, L. (et al), (1992), Outcomes: Studies in PersonalOutcomes: Studies in Personal
Development, Health and Physical EducationDevelopment, Health and Physical Education, The, The
Jacaranda Press, Milton.Jacaranda Press, Milton.
Griffin, R., (1981),Griffin, R., (1981), The Biology Colouring BookThe Biology Colouring Book, Barnes and, Barnes and
Noble Books, New York.Noble Books, New York.
Parker, R., (et al), (2000),Parker, R., (et al), (2000), Health Moves 2Health Moves 2, Heinemann,, Heinemann,
Melbourne.Melbourne.
Williams, P., (et al), (1999),Williams, P., (et al), (1999), Physical Education for Years 11Physical Education for Years 11
and 12and 12, Nelson Thomas Learning, South Melbourne., Nelson Thomas Learning, South Melbourne.
Wright, P., (et al), (2000),Wright, P., (et al), (2000), Inside and Out 3rd EditionInside and Out 3rd Edition, John, John
Wiley and Sons, Milton.Wiley and Sons, Milton.