1. Chapter 9 Overview State, Society and the Quest for Salvation in India

2. I. The Fortunes of Empire in Classical India

3. A. The Mauryan Dynasty and the Temporary Unification of India Aryans in India – small kingdoms 520 BCE Persian Emperor Darius conquers north-west India Introduces Persian administrative techniques (ruling patterns) 327 Alexander of Macedon destroys Persian Empire in India Troops mutiny, departs after 2 years - Political power vacuum

4. 1. Kingdom of Magadha Filled the power vacuum left by Alexander Most important state in N. India Conquered neighboring states – lead role in unification of India Controlled Indian commerce passing through Ganges

5. 2. Chandragupta Maurya Overthrew Magadha rulers Expanded kingdom to create 1st unified Indian empire

6. 3. Chandragupta’s Government Advisor Kautalya Oversee trade, agriculture, tax collecting, maintaining order, foreign relations, waging war Network of spies Bureaucratic administrative system Harsh political philosophy recorded in Arthashastra

7. 4. AshokaMaurya(268-232 B.C.E.) Conquered the kingdom of Kalinga (along major trade route), 260 B.C.E. Ruled with tightly organized bureaucracy Established capital at Pataliputra Oversaw implementation of his policies Rocks and pillar edicts Encouraged Buddhist values – fair, just and humane rule

8. Ashoka’sMauryan Empire Regions of India become well integrated Subcontinent benefits from trade and stability Irrigation systems = agricultural wealth Roads built – inns, shaded areas, well

9. 5. Decline of Mauryan Empire Economic crisis after Ashoka’s death High costs of bureaucracy, military not supported by tax revenue Frequent devaluations of currency to pay salaries Regions begin to abandon Mauryan Empire - disappears by 185 BCE

10. B. The Emergence of Regional Kingdoms and the Revival of Empire Mauryan collapse India did not crumble into anarchy Local rulers form series of regional kingdoms

11. 1. Bactrian Rule in NW India Northwestern India Ruled by Greek-speaking descendants of Alexander’s campaigns Intense cross-cultural activity accompanies active trade Link to China, Medit. Taxila flourished

12. 2. The Kushan Empire Nomadic conquerors from Central Asia attack Bactria Northern India/Central Asia (C. 1-300 CE) Kanishka- pacified region between China and Persia Maintained silk road network

13. 3. The Gupta Dynasty Based in Magadha – wealthy region Founded by Chandra Gupta (no relation to Chandragupta Maurya), c. 320 CE Samudra Gupta and Chandra II conquered regional kingdoms – formed alliances Highly decentralized leadership Brought stability and prosperity to subcontinent

14. 4. Gupta Decline Frequent invasions of White Huns, 5thc. CE High cost – resources depleted Gupta Dynasty disintegrates along regional fault lines After the fifth century C.E., Gupta dynasty continued in name only Large regional kingdoms dominated political life in India Smaller local kingdoms dominate until Mughal Empire founded in 16thc.

15. II. Economic and Social Distinctions

16. A. Towns and Trade Towns dotted Indian countryside Northwest corner of subcontinent (closer to Persian Empire)

17. 1. Towns and Manufacturing Manufactured goods in big demand – large agricultural economy Pots, textiles, iron tools, metal utensils Developed in dense network of small workshops Large scale businesses - Saddalputta Trade intense, capitalizes on trade routes across India built by Ashoka

18. 2. Long Distance Trade Persian connection since Cyrus, Darius Massive road-building projects under Persian rule Alexander extends trade west to Macedon Trade routes through Kush mountains, the silk roads Cotton, Aromatics, black pepper, pearls and gems

22. 1.Gender Relations Patriarchy entrenched Mahabharata and Ramayana – women are weak-willed emotional creatures Child marriage common (8 year old girls married to men in 20s) Dominated in household affairs Women encouraged to remain in private sphere female subordination

23. 2. Social Order Caste system from Aryan times Brahmins (priests) Kshatriyas (warriors, aristocrats) Vaishyas (Peasants, merchants) Shudras (serfs)

25. 3. Castes and Guilds Increasing economic diversification challenges simplistic caste system With trade and commerce new social groups of artisans, craftsmen, and merchants appeared Jatis formed: guilds that acted as sub-castes Families associate with others in like castes Jatis enforced social order “outcastes” forced into low-status employment

26. 4. Wealth and the Social Order Vaishyasand shudras saw unprecedented wealth Upward social mobility possible for Vaishyas, Shudras Wealth challengesvarnafor status Old beliefs and values of early Aryan society became increasingly irrelevant

27. III. Religions of Salvation in Classical India

28. A. Jainism and the Challenge to the Established Cultural Order Social change generated resentment of caste privilige e.g. Brahmins free from taxation 6th-5thc. BCE new religions and philosophies challenge status quo Charvakas: atheists Jainists, Buddhists

29. 1. VardhamanaMahavira VardhamanaMahavira (Jina) founded Jain religion in 5th century B.C.E. Abandoned privileged family to lead ascetic life Promotes 7thc. movement based on Upanishads Emphasis on selfless living, concern for all beings

30. 2.Jainist Ethics Striving to purify one's selfish behavior to attain a state of bliss Principle of ahimsa, nonviolence toward all living things Jainists sweep earth, strain water, use slow movements to avoid killing insects Too demanding, not a practical alternative to the cult of the brahmans

31. 3.Appeal of Jainism Social implication: individual souls equally participated in ultimate reality Rejected caste, jati distinctions Obvious appeal to underprivileged groups Too extreme - no mass movement Ahimsa continues to inspire modern movements (Ghandi, Martin Luther King Jr.)

32. B. Early Buddhism Founder came from Kshatriyafamily More practical that Jainism Salvation comes from leading a balanced and moderate life

33. 1. Siddhartha Gautama Gave up his comfortable life to search for cause of suffering c. 563-483 BCE Encountered age, sickness, death, then monastic life Abandoned comfortable life to become a monk

34. 2. Gautama’s Search for Enlightenment Wanders through Ganges valley searching for enlightenment Intense meditation, extreme asceticism 49 days of meditation under bo tree to finally achieve enlightenment Attained title Buddha: “the enlightened one”

35. 3. Buddha and His Followers Announced his doctrine at the Deer Park of Sarnath in 528 B.C.E. Promotes law of righteousness Organized a community of monks “Decay is inherent in all component things! Work out your salvation with diligence”

36. 4. Buddhist Doctrine: Dharma The Four Noble Truths 1. All life involves suffering 2. Suffering is caused by desire 3. elimination of desire ends suffering 4. disciplined life in accordance to Noble Eightfold Path are the way to end suffering Religious goal: personal salvation, or nirvana, a state of perfect spiritual independence

37. 5. Appeal of Buddhism Appealed strongly to members of lower castes because it did not recognize social hierarchies of castes and jati less demanding than Jainism, which made it more popular Used vernacular tongues, not Sanskrit Holy sites venerated by pilgrims The monastic organizations--extremely efficient at spreading the Buddhist message and winning converts to the faith

38. 6. Ashoka’s Support Converted to Buddhism Disillusioned after violent war with Kalinga Banned animal sacrifices, mandated vegetarianism in court Material support for Buddhist institutions, missionary activities

39. C. Mahayana Buddhism Early Buddhism was not an easy path to salvation Between 3rd century BCE – 1st century CE - Three new developments

40. 1. Development of Buddhism 1. Buddha became a god 2. The notion of boddhisatva--"an enlightened being” 3. Monasteries began to accept gifts from wealthy individuals

41. 2. Spread of Mahayana Buddhism Mahayana (“greater vehicle”), newer development India, China, Japan, Korea, central Asia Hinayana (“lesser vehicle,” also Theravada), earlier version Ceylon, Burma, Thailand

42. 3. Nolanda Buddhist Monastery Quasi-university: Buddhism, Hindu texts, philosophy, astronomy, medicine, logic Peak at end of Gupta dynasty – attracted students from foreign lands Helped spread Indian thought E.g. mathematical number zero

43. D. The Emergence of Popular Hinduism Like Buddhism, undergoes change to appeal to more people Inspired by Upanishads and Vedas Departed from older traditions

44. 1. The Epics Composition of epics from older oral traditions Mahabharata Ramayana Emphasis on god Vishnu and his incarnations

45. 2. The BhagavadGita Short poetic work: dialogue between Krishna and warrior Arjuna Illustrated expectations of Hinduism and promise of salvation Fulfill caste duties

46. 3. Hindu Ethics Lead honorable life – 4 principal aims Achieve salvation through meeting caste responsibilities (dharma) Pursuit of economic well-being and honesty (artha) Enjoyment of social, physical and sexual pleasure (kama) Salvation of the soul (moksha)

47. 4. Popularity of Hinduism Gradually replaced Buddhism in India Political support by Guptas Brahmins given land grants Buddhism in decline in India by 1000 C.E.

48. SUMMARY Rich agricultural economy leads to creation of large states Interregional trade networks develop Large empires not permanent, but social order maintained by caste system Religious developments reflect social realities Buddhism and Hinduism adapt to needs of growing class of commoners Religion influence daily lives