Fundamentals of Accounting

1. ACCOUNTING
FOR MANAGERS
For I Semester, MBA-Pondicherry University

2. Outline of the Course…
• Unit I – Financial Accounting
• Unit II – Depreciation Accounting & Ratio Analysis
• Unit III – Fund Flow and Cash Flow Analysis
• Unit IV – Marginal Costing
• Unit V – Cost Accounting
• Problems vs. Theory – 60: 40

3. Concept of
• Accounting is a process of Identifying, Accounting
Measuring, Classifying, Recording and
communicating Financial Information.
Book Keeping is
the art of recording
business
transactions in a
systematic manner.
Element Description
Identifying Determining business transaction
Measuring Expressing business transaction in terms of
money
Recording Entering money transactions in books
Classifying Grouping of entries according to nature
Summarizing Presentation of accounting information
Communicating Interpretation of results

4. Transaction
Vs.
Event
• Capital introduced by proprietor in business
• Amount withdrawn by proprietor for personal
use.
• Appointed a salesman for business
• Private income earned and retained by the
proprietor with himself.
• Promise to give loan to a friend
• Received gift from mother-in-law
• Purchase return
• Discount allowed to a customer
• An expense incurred, but not paid.
• Sale of good on credit
• Loss of goods by theft
What is the
difference?
Every financial
change that occurs
in your business is a
transaction.
Event is not
measurable in terms
of money, but
transaction is
measurable in terms
of money.

5. Users of
Accounting
Information
• Owners or Shareholders
• Potential investors
• Lenders
• Creditors
• Customers
• Creditors
• Management
• Employees
• Government
• Stock exchanges
The various parties
who are interested
in accounting
information..
Need and Importance of Accounting
• Results of operations
• Solvency and liquidity
• Financial position
• Cash flows

6. Types of
transactions
1. Cash Transactions
2. Credit transaction
3. Barter transaction
4. Paper transaction
Criteria: Settlement
and Time
Test your Progress?
1. Antony commenced business with cash
2. Took loan from a bank
3. Salaries yet to paid to employees
4. Returned goods to supplier Mr. Akbar
5. Cash stone from office
6. Sale of goods on credit to Mr. Amar
7. Withdrew from bank account for personal use
8. Sold goods to employee in settlement of his salary

7. Basic
Accounting
Terms
• Business Entity
• Proprietor or Owner
• Equity
• Capital
• Net worth
• Drawings
• Assets
• Liabilities
• Debtors
• Creditors
• Inventory
• Sales and Purchases
• Debit & Credit
• Turnover
• Bills payable and Receivables

8. 1. Accounting Concepts
2. Accounting Convention
Accounting Principles
“A general law or rule adopted or professed as
a guide to action; a settled ground on basis of
conduct on practice”
Accounting Concepts
• Business Entity Concept
• Business and owner are separate entities
• Accounting view
• Capital and drawings
• Accurate financial position
• Money Measurement Concept
• Records only monetary transactions
• Helps to know the value of business
Accounting
Concepts
These concepts
provide a
foundation for
accounting process.
No enterprise can
prepare its financial
statements without
considering these
concepts.

9. Accounting
Concepts
• Going Concern Concept
• Permanent continuity
• Preparation of Financial statements
• Distinction between capital and revenue items
• Entering into long term contracts
• Classification of assets
• Accounting period concept
• Knowing the performance of business
• Convenient short periods
• Calendar period and financial period
• Cost or Historical Concept
• Fixed assets at cost
• Current assets at cost price or market price which ever is less
• Valuation of fixed assets every year becomes difficult
Accounting
convention refers
to custom tradition
or practice, which
has been in
practice for a long
time, which
becomes the basis
of preparing
financial
statements.

10. Accounting
Concepts and
Convention
• Objective Evidence Concept
• Entries based on source documents
• Reduces scope of manipulations
• Revenue recognition concept
• Revenue is earned from sale of goods
• Goods or services are transferred when legally liable to pay
• No unrealized profits
• Prevents inflated profits
• Gives objectivity
• Accrual Concept
• Transactions are recorded whether they are settled in
cash or not
• Outstanding, Prepaid, Accrued, Incomes received in
advance
• Dual Aspect concept/ Accounting Equation
Concept
• Assets= Liabilities + Capital

11. Accounting Concepts
• Accounting convention refers to custom tradition or practice, which has been in practice for a
long time, which becomes the basis of preparing financial statements.
Accounting Concept Description
Going Concern
Concept
Business unit will have a perpetual existence and will not be sold or liquidated
Accounting period
concept
Prepare financial statements at periodic intervals for taking timely corrective action
Cost or Historical
Concept
Assets should be shown on the balance sheet at the cost of purchase instead of
current value
Objective Evidence
Concept
Accounting records will initiate from a source document and that the information
recorded is based on fact and not personal opinion.
Revenue recognition
concept
Realization is assumed to occur when the seller receives cash or a claim to cash
(receivable) in exchange for goods or services.
Accrual Concept Transactions are recorded even though actual receipts or payments of money may
not have taken place.
Dual aspect Concept This concept ensures that transaction are recorded in books at least in two accounts

12. Accounting
Conventions
Accounting
convention refers
to custom tradition
or practice, which
has been in
practice for a long
time, which
becomes the basis
of preparing
financial
statements.
• Convention of Materiality
• According to American Accounting Association, “An item
should be regarded as material if there is reason to believe
that knowledge of it would influence decision of informed
investor.”
• Convention of Conservatism
• All anticipated losses should be recorded but all
anticipated gains should be ignored.
• It is a policy of playing safe
• Convention of consistency
• Accounting method should remain consistent year by year.
• This facilitates comparison in both directions i.e. intra firm &
inter firm.
• Convention of Full disclosure
• Information relating to the economic affairs of the
enterprise should be completely disclosed which are of
material interest to the users.
• Proforma & contents of balance sheet & P&L a/c are
prescribed by Companies Act.
• It does not mean that leaking out the secrets of the
business.

13. ACCOUNTING EQUIVALENCE
Assets = Owner’s Equity +
Outside Liabilities
A = OE + OL

14. 14
DEFINITION: BS
•Balance Sheet is defined as
•a statement of the financial
position
•of an enterprise
•as at a given date, which
exhibits
•assets, liabilities, capital, etc.

15. HORIZONTAL FORM OF BS
LIABILITIES
Amount
(Rs)
ASSETS
Amount
(Rs)
Capital XX
Fixed Assets-Land,
Bldg,
XX
Loan taken XX Current Assets
Current Liabilities •Cash / Bank B/s XX
•Outstanding Expenses XX
•Accounts Receivable
(Debtors)
XX
•Bank Overdraft XX •Bills Receivable) XX
•Accounts Payable
XX •Inventories (Stock) XX
(Creditors)
XYZ XYZ

16. VERTICAL FORM OF BS
SOURCES OF FUNDS Amount (Rs.) py Amount (Rs) cy
Share Capital AA XX
Reserves & Surplus AA
Secured Loans AA XX
Unsecured Loans AA XX
ABC XYZ
APPLICATION OF FUNDS Amount (Rs.) py Amount (Rs) cy
Fixed Assets Gross Block
AA XX
- Depreciation
Investment AA XX
Current Assets – Current Liabilities AA XX
Loans & Advances AA XX
Miscellaneous Expenditure AA XX
ABC XYZ

17. 17
A = OE + OL
Assets are properties or economic
resources owned by a business. They are
expected to provide future benefits to the
business.
Liabilities are
obligations of the
business. They
are claims
against the
assets of the
business.
Equity is the
owner’s claim on
the assets of the
business. It is the
residual interest in
the assets after
deducting
liabilities.

18. 18
A = OE + OL
LIABILITIES
Amount
ASSETS
Amount
Capital XX Fixed Assets-Land, Bldg, XX
Loan taken XX Current Assets
Current Liabilities Cash / Bank B/s XX
Outstanding Expenses XX
Accounts Receivable
(Debtors)
XX
Bank Overdraft XX Bills Receivable) XX
Accounts Payable (Creditors) XX Inventories (Stock) XX
XYZ XYZ

19. A = OE + OL
SOURCES OF FUNDS
Amount
py
Amount
cy
Share Capital AA XX
Reserves & Surplus AA
Secured Loans XX
Unsecured Loans XX
XX
APPLICATION OF FUNDS
Amount
(Rs) py
Amount
(Rs) cy
Fixed Assets Gross Block
- Depreciation
Investment
Current Assets – Current Liabilities
Loans & Advances
Miscellaneous Expenditure

20. 20
PROOF: A = OE + OL
Owners of Scox Company contributed
Rs. 20,000 cash to start the business.
The accounts involved are:
(1) Cash (asset)
(2) Owner’s Equity (equity)

21. 21
Transaction Analysis
Owners of Scox Company contributed
Rs. 20,000 cash to start the business.
Assets = Liabilities +
Owners'
Equity
Cash Supplies Equipment
Accounts
Payable
Notes
Payable
Owners'
Capital
(1) 20000 20000
20000 0 0 0 0 20000
20000 = 20000

22. 22
Purchased supplies paying Rs. 1,000 cash.
Transaction Analysis
The accounts involved are:
(1) Cash (asset)
(2) Supplies (asset)

23. 23
Transaction Analysis
Purchased supplies paying Rs. 1,000
cash.
Assets = Liabilities +
Owners'
Equity
Cash Supplies Equipment
Accounts
Payable
Notes
Payable
Owner's'
Capital
(1) 20000 20000
(2) -1000 1000
19000 1000 0 0 0 20000
20000 = 20000

24. 24
Transaction Analysis
Purchased equipment for Rs.15,000
cash.
The accounts involved are:
(1) Cash (asset)
(2) Equipment (asset)

25. 25
Transaction Analysis
Purchased equipment for Rs. 15,000
cash.
Assets = Liabilities +
Owners'
Equity
Cash Supplies Equipment
Accounts
Payable
Notes
Payable
Owners'
Capital
(1) 20000 20000
(2) -1000 1000
(3) -15000 15000
4000 1000 15000 0 0 20000
20000 = 20000

26. 26
Transaction Analysis
Purchased Supplies of Rs. 200 and
Equipment of Rs. 1,000 on account.
The accounts involved are:
(1) Supplies (asset)
(2) Equipment (asset)
(3) Accounts Payable (liability)

27. 27
Transaction Analysis
Purchased Supplies of Rs. 200 and
Equipment of Rs. 1,000 on account.
Assets = Liabilities +
Owners'
Equity
Cash Supplies Equipment
Accounts
Payable
Notes
Payable
Owners'
Capital
(1) 20000 20000
(2) -1000 1000
(3) -15000 15000
(4) 200 1000 1200
4000 1200 16000 1200 0 20000
21200 = 21200

28. 28
Transaction Analysis
The balances so far appear below. Note that the
Balance Sheet Equation is still in balance.
Assets = Liabilities +
Owners'
Equity
Cash Supplies Equipment
Accounts
Payable
Notes
Payable
Owners'
Capital
Bal. 4000 1200 16000 1200 20000
4000 1200 16000 1200 0 20000
21200 = 21200
Now let’s look at transactions
involving revenues and expenses.

29. 29
Transaction Analysis
Rendered consulting services receiving Rs. 3,000 cash.
The accounts involved are:
(1) Cash (asset)
(2) Revenues (equity)

30. 30
Transaction Analysis
Rendered consulting services
receiving Rs. 3,000 cash.
Assets = Liabilities +
Owner's
Equity
Cash Supplies Equipment
Accounts
Payable
Notes
Payable
Owner's
Capital
Bal. 4000 1200 16000 1200 20000
(5) 3000 3000
7000 1200 16000 1200 0 23000
24200 = 24200

31. 31
Transaction Analysis
Paid salaries to employees, Rs. 800
cash.
The accounts involved are:
(1) Cash (asset)
(2) Salaries expense (equity)

32. Transaction Analysis
Paid salaries to employees, Rs. 800 cash.
32
Assets = Liabilities +
Owner's
Equity
Cash Supplies Equipment
Accounts
Payable
Notes
Payable
Owner's
Capital
Bal. 4000 1200 16000 1200 20000
(5) 3000 3000
(6) -800 -800
6200 1200 16000 1200 0 22200
23400 = 23400

33. 33
Transaction Analysis
Borrowed Rs. 4,000 from SBI
The accounts involved are:
(1) Cash (asset)
(2) Notes payable (liability)

34. 34
Transaction Analysis
Borrowed Rs. 4,000 from SBI
Assets = Liabilities +
Owner's
Equity
Cash Supplies Equipment
Accounts
payable
Notes
Payable
Owner's
capital
Bal. 4000 1200 16000 1200 20000
(5) 3000 3000
(6) -800 -800
(7) 4000 4000
10200 1200 16000 1200 4000 22200
27400 = 27400

35. 35
Financial Statements
Prepare the Financial Statements reflecting the transactions we
have recorded.

36. 36
Scox’s net
income is the
difference
Income Statement
The net income
of Rs. 2,200
increases
between
Scox’s Revenues equity
and
by Expenses.
Rs. 2,200.
Scox Company
Income Statement
For Month Ended March 31, 2001
Revenues:
Consulting revenue 3000
Expenses:
Salaries expense 800
Net income 2200
Scox Company
Statement of Changes in Owners' Equity
For Month Ended March 31, 2001
Owners' equity, 1st April 2000 0
Plus: Investment by owners 20000
Net income 2200
Owners' equity, 31st March 2002 22200

37. Scox Company
Statement of Changes in Owners' Equity
For Month Ended March 31, 2001
Owners' equity 0
Investment by owners 20000
Net income 2200
Owners' equity, March 31 2001 22200
37
Balance Sheet
The balance sheet reflects
Scox’s financial position at
Scox Company
Balance Sheet
March 31, 2001
March 31 2001
Liabilities & Owners' Equity Assets
Accounts payable 1200 Cash 10200
Notes payable 4000 Supplies 1200
Total liabilities 5200 Equipment 16000
Owners' equity 22200
Total liabilities
and owners'
equity 27400 Total assets 27400

38. Classification of Accounts
1. English Approach
2.American Approach

39. English
Approach
Accounts
Personal Asset Nominal
Every Business
concern deals with
other persons.
A business concern
has certain
properties or assets
It may incur certain
expenses and may
earn certain
incomes

40. Personal
Accounts
• Natural personal account
• Accounts of physical and naturally born person
• Artificial personal account
• A person created by law
• Representative personal account
• They represent certain person behind them
Persons with whom
a business is carried
out.

41. Asset
Account
An account of
things owned by a
concern and in and
with which the
business is carried
on.
• Accounts of Tangible assets
• Physical evidence
• Accounts of Intangible assets
• Do of have physical existence
Nominal
Account
Account of incomes and losses and expenses
and gains

42. Activity
Test your Progress
 Furniture account
 Outstanding wages account
 Stationary account
 Capital Account
 Salaries account
Nominal a/c
Natural personal
account a/c
Nominal account a/c
 National Trading Co; account
 Prepaid insurance account
 Interest account
 Sales account
 Repair on machinery
 Debtors account
 Bills receivable account
 Provision for depreciation
 Rent account
Representative
personal a/c
Artificial personal account
Asset or Nominal a/c
Nominal account a/c
a/c
Representative
personal a/c
Asset a/c
Nominal account a/c
Personal account
a/c
Asset
a/c
Asset a/c
Nominal a/c

43. 43
DOUBLE ENTRY SYSTEM
A = OE + OL
Debit = Credit
In the double-entry accounting system,
every transaction is recorded by equal
amounts of debits and credits.

44. 44
ACCOUNTANT’S LIFE
A = OE + OL
ASSETS
Debit
for
Increase
Credit
for
Decrease
EQUITIES
Debit
for
Decrease
Credit
for
Increase
LIABILITIES
Debit
for
Decrease
Credit
for
Increase
ASSETS
Debit Credit
+ -
LIABILITIES
- +
EQUITIES
Debit Credit
- +
Debit Credit

45. RULES OF DOUBLE
ENTRY SYSTEM

46. Real
Account
• Rules of Accounting:
•Debit what comes in
• Credit what goes out
These are asset
accounts that
appear in the
Balance Sheet.
They are referred to
as Real Account (or
Permanent
Accounts) as these
are owned by
businesses and the
balances in these
accounts at the
end of an
accounting period
will be carried over
to the next period.
Ex: Cash Account,
Land Account,
Building Account
etc.

47. PERSONAL
Account
• Rules of Accounting:
•Debit the Receiver
• Credit the Giver
These are accounts
of parties with
whom the business
is a carried on.

48. Nominal
Account
• Rules of Accounting:
•Debit all expenses and
losses
• Credit all income and
gains
These are accounts
of expenses and
losses which a
business incurs and
income & gains
which a business
earn in the course
of business. Ex: Rent
Account, Interest
Account.

49. Activity
• Mr. Ajay started business with Cash Rs. 100,000. • Test your progress
Two accounts
Types of
Rule of Debit and Credit Account to
Account to be
Involved
accounts
debited
credited
Cash a/c
Capital a/c
Real a/c
Personal a/c
Debit what comes in
Credit giver of benefit
Cash Capital
• Brought Goods from Vijay for Cash Rs. 1000
Two accounts
Types of
Involved
accounts
Rule of Debit and Credit Account to
debited
Account to be
credited
Cash a/c
Goods purchased
a/c
Real a/c
Real a/c
Credit what goes out
Debit what comes in
Goods
purchased
Cash
• Purchased Goods from Sujay for credit Rs. 300
Two accounts
Types of
Involved
accounts
Rule of Debit and Credit Account to
debited
Account to be
credited
Raghu a/c
Goods purchased
a/c
Personal a/c
Real a/c
Credit giver of benefit
Debit what comes in
Goods
purchased
Raghu

50. 50
ACCOUNTING CYCLE
1. Business Transaction
2. Transaction is recorded in
document (Voucher / Receipt)
3. Analyze the transaction
4. Journal Entry
5. Ledger Accounts (or ‘T’ account)
6. Trial Balance
7. Balance Sheet, P&L A/c, Cash Flow
Statement

51. 51
ACCOUNTANT’S ROUTINE
Balance Sheet
P & L A/c
Cash Flow
Prepare a trial
balance
Post to the
ledger
Journal Entry
Source
Transaction documents Analyze

52. Thank You Now, was that debits to
the left or credits to the
left?
I sure wish I had paid
more attention in class!