New Approaches To Africa History: Arabization, Imperialism, & Religious Duality

Running head: ARABISM, IMPERIALISM, & RELIGIOUS DUALITY

New Approaches to African History: Arabization, Imperialism, & Religious Duality

Max J. Smith

Arizona State University

ARABISM, IMPERIALISM, & RELIGIOUS DUALITY 2

The following is a collection of passages providing insight into the often overlooked and

neglected history of Africa from an Islamic and Arab paradigm. The essay is based

around the work of Religious and African Studies scholar, Prof. David Robison, pulling

mostly from Cambridge text, Muslims in African History: New Approaches to African

History.

I.) Arabization, Islamization, & Africanization

To begin, on must understand the difference between Arabization and

Islamization. Arabization is the spread of the Arabic language (As it is the ‘word of god’)

while Islamization is the spread of the Islamic Faith. "Sharia Law," or the divine law of

god, and the Quran made each of the above processes possible on a grandeur scale for a

simple reason; they made Islam portable. Having said that one would assume these two

tightly knit processes would work hand-in-hand, however, such is false. Arabization

came along the same paths as Islamization throughout Africa but at a different pace and

with different consequences (Miles, 31). While many Northern Africans were converting

to Islam (Islamization), Africans on other parts of the continent were keeping to their

native Creole languages. This Africanization of Islam is found much more prevalent

during the spread of Islam throughout the country than that of Arabization. Islam is said

to have spread during three phases or process in Africa: Minority Islam, Court Islam, and

Majority Islam (Robinson, 28). Beginning with Minority Islam, Islamic influence came

through merchants and traders in Sub-Saharan bazaars. This was followed by Court

Islam, which entailed the spread of Islam in cities/towns through wealthy merchants,

ranking officials, and rulers. The spread of Islam didn't reach the countryside until much

latter; being that this was where the majority of Africans lived, the Majority Phase. In

 Arizona State University – Hugh Downs School of Communication – Smith 


knowing how these processes interact one can address at how each were African-

ized to accommodate African cultural norms. A primitive example of these processes at

work is the African Talismans. Followers of Islam used (in addition to spiritual

protection) talismans to make his or her faith concrete by the combination precious

stones/metals with Arabic numerology or language. This Islamization and Arabization

was prevalent over the entire continent. However, in a more remote occurrence in Eastern

Africa, Swahili Muslims carried scripture accompanied by a translated copy in Swahili,

featuring both secular and Islamic themes. It can be said from this that although

Islamization took a strong initial hold in the Swahili states, it took Arabic much longer to

infiltrate the culture of the area (Robinson, 36). On the other hand, the Berbers in the

Sahara converted to Islam as groups rather than singularities as a choice of their leaders;

as a result, Berber Muslim devotion was much less. It was in these Berber communities

that a Dar Al-Islam was created which supposedly aided in the removal of the Jahiliyya

(time of ignorance) or time before Islam. Tribes in different areas accommodated

accordingly to fit Islam into their existing life: Africanization. More wealthy tribes had

large concrete mosques with multiple versions of translated scripture allowing the onset

of Arabization to move slower (Miles, 39). Poor areas of Arica had only few copies of

scripture in a native language and mosques made out of mud and stick, requiring poorer

areas of conversion to learn Arabic more quickly. The dynamics of these processes seem

to have more reciprocal effects than imagined – the integral movement of Sharia Law and

the Quran throughout Africa.



II.) Sudan and the Mahdi: Muhammad Ahmad and Khalifa Abdullahi

Beginning in the Nineteenth Century the Sudan was privileged with two highly

influential religious leaders: Muhammad Ahmad and Khalifa Abdullahi. These Sudanese

men of Islamic faith, Muhammad Ahmad and his successor Khalifa Abdullahi had very

similar reigns over the Sudanese population which swore allegiance to each. During

Muhammad Ahmad's reign he was often opposed by Turkish forces with Imperialistic

tendencies just as Khalifa Abdullahi fought against Imperialist forces and King Yohannes

prior. In addition to handling similar Imperial pressure, both men were scholarly

educated, preachers and writers. Both men were well known for their dedication to

scripture and its power to bring people together through indoctrination. Most importantly,

both of these men used their understanding of Islam to motivate and mobilize large

populations of Muslims against foreign intrusion and economic hardship (Robinson,

156). While appearing quite similar in Islamic nature, Muhammad Ahmad’s and Khalifa

Abdullahi’s Sudanese Regimes differ greatly in regards to the oppressors and outcome of

the regime.

Muhammad Ahmad grew up in the Nile River Valley beginning to study the

Quran at very small age. As he became older he began to speak outright as a partisan of

reform of certain Islamic traditions, such as burial and ceremonial fasting. Muhammad

Ahmad's mission to gain a Islamic Sudanese following began to gain steam due to

noticeable press on Ahmad's dedication. Not much time after Ahmad claimed he was the

great Mahdi, meaning "he who comes at the end of days (Fradin, 45)." As he recognized

himself as the Mahdi, his following began to grow at exponential rates; adjunct, Ahmad

and his Ansars ('helpers' of the prophet) spent much of the next three years in battle



defeating Turkish imperialists (in hope of stopping imperial control of from outside

regimes) (49). However, after many years of fighting Mahdi Muhammad Ahmad died

abruptly in 1885, in which he appointed Khalifa Abdullahi as his successor. Khalifa

Abdullahi was a cleric to the Mahdi and one of his most reformed and passionate

Muslims. However when Abdullahi took reign of the Sudanese following he found much

more opposition from within his own community than the Mahdi (Robinson, 155). The

most serious of these oppositions came from the Ashraf also known as the "descendents

of the prophet." These descendents of the prophet claimed that as sons (blood relative) of

Ahmad they were the rightful heirs to the throne. In addition to civil pressure, Abdullahi

was also under constant pressure to protect the Sudanese Muslims from outside regimes

such as the British and Turkish forces (Fradin, 66). As time passed Khalifa Abdullahi

received more imperial pressure from Christian Ethiopia in addition to a widespread

famine that stormed the country. British Colonialism would be the final draw of the

Mahdist State, as the Sudan was completely inhabited by British force by 1900. The

Khalifa's attempt to lead Sudan can be viewed as a futile attempt to restore order in a time

of chaos; sparked by after the abrupt death of Mahdi Ahmad (159). The oppressing

communities the Mahdi’s regime dealt with were almost all Turko-Egyptian factions

while the Khalifa’s regime dealt with multiple imperial forces as well as oppression from

within his own following. The outcome of each regime is apparently different as well:

Mahdi Ahmad began an Islamic Reformation in Sudan, while Khalifa Abdullahi, the

leader of the same sect of Muslims was suppressed by imperialism.

Although Muhammad Ahmad and Khalifa Abdullahi had much in common as

rulers of the same regime, however, retrospect shows how different each ruler's era



was. For example, Muhammad Ahmad sparked an Islamic revolution within the Sudan,

and declared jihad on his Imperialist enemies while claiming to be the Great Mahdi from

the Quran. On the other hand, his successor's era is defined by internal Sudanese revolts,

famine, and military pressure from the Turks, British, and Ethiopian regimes. Mahdi

Muhammad Ahmad's era began a strong Islamic reformation within the Sudan, whereas

Khalifa Abdullahi's era can be viewed as the demise of the very same reformative state

begun by Ahmad Muhammad.

III.) Post-Colonial West Africa and Islamism

Colonial influence has had a multitude of effects on West Africa. For over one

hundred years West Africa was under control by either British or French control. West

African Architecture, Cuisine, Music, and Language alike were all affected by this

colonization. This is the reason many areas in Mali speak French as their primary

language, or the reason why many areas in Ghana have British architecture within their

mosques (McElroy, 17). A commonality between British and French colonialism is their

belief in a separation of church and state for nation-states in West Africa. Both countries,

Britain & France, felt strongly that mosque rule and political rule must be separate

(Miles, 109). Although Britain and France enforced a separation of mosque and state

during their colonial rule, recent political evolutions in Nigeria and the Senegal prove this

“church and state” influence left no lasting effects in West Africa.

From circa 1850’s to 1960 Nigeria was a British Colony affected by separation of

mosque and State; unlike influences in Architecture and Cuisine in the nation, this

separation did not remain. After Nigeria gained its independence in the 1960 the country

slowly began integrating more and more religion in to political rule (Mahmud, 85). In the



1970’s the Tariqas and Izala, Islamic organizations with military means, began to rise in

power and popularity. Over the next two decades these groups, as well as smaller Islamist

groups, began to clash with each other and the government for power (Mahmud, 86).

Verbal and violent attacks on buildings and government officials from small radical

Islamic groups demanding Sharia law lead to Nigeria’s biggest step in evolving towards

an Islamist state. As of 2000 twelve nation-states were currently bound under Islamic

Law, Sharia Law (Mahmud, 87). Meaning, the separation of mosque and state put in

place not but forty years before was completely nullified. British colonialism had no

effect on keeping mosque and state separate in Nigeria, and for that matter, West Africa.

Like Nigeria, the Senegal was under colonial rule for over one hundred years.

Beginning in 1860 French colonialists manipulated Islamic rulers as a way to control the

indigenous more easily. Although these officials were Muslim their ‘official duties’ were

in no way connected to Islam; or at least the French wanted it that way. Until Senegalese

independence in 1960 the French kept a control over major political offices to make sure

mosque officials had limited power (Robinson, 109). This French influence over mosque

and state became non-existent as time elapsed. Post-independence, the Muslim

population in Senegal, mostly Sufi, began to outgrow the non-Muslim population. This

Muslim majority played a prevalent role in the 1990’s and even more so in the 2000

presidential election (Villalon, 86). The 2000 Presidential election contained two Sufi

candidates who based their entire election on an Islamist basis. Both men constantly cited

scripture and Islamic narratives to frame the current situation in the Senegal. In 2000, the

democratic landscape had changed from mosque and state being separate nearly four

decades before to Islamist rhetoric as a means of presidential platform (Villalon, 88).



Although neither Islamist candidate was elected in 2000, since that election only

two percent of those running for political office are non-Muslim. Senegal’s political

structure evolved from a small Muslim influence in the 1960’s to one considering an

Islamist president (Villalon, 87). The power of the mosque in Senegalese elections show

how little a long-lasting effect the French separation of mosque and state had on political

structure in West Africa.

West Africa colonial influences from both the France and Britain are impossible

to ignore however as described above not all influences leave lasting impression. Both

Nigeria and the Senegal were subjected to a separation of Church and State, however,

neither show lasting effect. The West African people of Senegal and Nigeria demonstrate

how one country’s strong convictions (Britain and or France) can have far less value to

others.

IV.) African Slave Trade and an Islamic Dichotomy

From the beginning of documented history, there have been systems designed to

exploit humans for slave labor. Slavery, as it is commonly known, has plagued societies

for generations often times intertwined with a people’s religious identity, either in the

name of or in order to cope with (Miles, 89). For example, religion was used as a coping

mechanism for Jews during WWI, using Judaism to help escape the hardships of harsh

concentration camp life (Chilton, 29). Religion has also been used to enslave populations,

as during the tenth century when Christian Knights would use their religious conversion

tactics to enslave, convert or kill those in the midst of their Crusade (33). Although both

cases are recognized, very rarely is it that the same religion can both enslave and comfort



a population in the same era; such is the case for Islam in Africa. Islam was used to both

enslave Africans as well as help them cope with the hardships of being enslaved.

Beginning in the 1400’s African Muslims were enslaved by different groups of

Europeans, and as a result these men and women used their religion to cope with the

conditions they were subjected too. A prototypical example can be found in the

enslavement of Abu Bakr. Abu Bakr was a West African Muslim who lived with his

family of traders along an old Mali Empire trading route. As European influence moved

closer so did the conflicts. Abu was soon forced to fight a war with which he had little

vested interest in (as both sides had no connection to Islam). Abu, as part of the ‘losing

side,’ was enslaved by his new imperialist masters and then shipped to Jamaica for trade

(Robinson, 61). He is quoted from his journal, “They tore my clothes off, gave me a

heavy load to carry, then made me walk the road…made me change my name to Edward,

…sleep like animals,…eat like animals (63).” Scholarly research shows that such stories

were common of those taken through the Atlantic Slave Trade. These subjections to harsh

environments, humiliating conditions, and over work take a hard toll on the African

Muslim slaves. To help cope with these issues, these Muslims would pray as a form of

escape (68). However, due to the fact that there were so few African Muslims taken

during the slave trade it was hard to create religious congregations or establish Islamic

continuity. By default of this, transplanted Muslim slaves in the West Indies and

Americas used faith to cope with their hardships in private. During the same era, this

same religion played a part in enslaving inhabitants on the very same continent.

To understand how Islam was used to help enslave Africans, one must first

understand how the Muslims justified slavery. Slavery was just as long as the


ARABISM, IMPERIALISM, & RELIGIOUS DUALITY  10

enslavement was below the divide of the the: the faithful of Islam (Dar al-Islam), and the

ignorant or the non-believers (Dar al-Kufr). This meant that as long as those being

enslaved were non-believers, such an act was a just cause. Just as there was a ‘losing

side’ in Abu Bakr’s war, there was also a ‘winning side.’ Many times Muslims found

along the Trans-Saharan Trade route were patrons of ‘winning sides’ and thus were

reluctant to help the victors with their interest in Africa: Slavery (Robinson, 72). Because

many of the ‘victorious’ Muslims were from flourishing cities, they were in turn well

educated; providing them work as appraisers, inspectors, and recruiters by their European

counterparts (68). All of these jobs were utilized in the trafficking of human property

(Chilton,33). Muslims used their religiously gained education to help facilitate levels of

the slave trade; helping to enslave Africans by way of Islam. It should be recognized that

some African Muslims of the time questioned the involvement of Muslims and

justification of non-Muslim slaves but little could be done during the time as the Muslims

areas were inundated with European military influence (Robinson, 66).

The use of Islam in Africa during the Slave Trade appears somewhat to be in the

dichotomy of war. The dichotomy of war in this case states: at the wars end there is a

definitive a ‘winner’ and a ‘loser.’ The application of Islam in Africa (at the time) was

determined by which side of the dichotomy a Muslim patron sided with. If one was a

member of the ‘winning’ side he or she may be given a skill position like those in the

trans-Sahara. However, if you were on the ‘losing side’ you may end up more like Abu

Bakr, as a commodity in a slave trade. The arbitrary lines of war create a divide in which

peoples of the same religious sect oppress one another, using their similarities as

mechanism of facilitation.


ARABISM, IMPERIALISM, & RELIGIOUS DUALITY  11

References

Fradin, M.S. (2003). Jihad: The Mahdi Rebellion in Sudan. ACP: New York. PP 1-86.

Mahmud, S.S. (2004). ASR Focus: Islamism in West Africa, Nigeria. African Studies

Review 47, (2). PP 83-101.

McElroy, W. (2004). West Africa and Colonialism: Part 1, 2, & 3. Freedom Daily 5, (4),

PP 1-22.

Miles, W. F. (2004). ASR Focus: Islamism in West Africa, Introduction. African Studies

Review, (47), 2. PP 55-117.

Robinson, D. (2008). Muslims in African History: New Approaches to African History.

Cambridge Press: Boston. PP 164 -169.

Villalon, L.A. (2004). ASR Focus: Islamism in West Africa, Senegal. African Studies

Review, (47), 2. PP 61-71.


New Approaches To Africa History: Arabization, Imperialism, & Religious Duality

Recomendados

Recomendados

Mais conteúdo relacionado

Mais procurados

Mais procurados (20)

Destaque

Destaque (6)

Semelhante a New Approaches To Africa History: Arabization, Imperialism, & Religious Duality

Semelhante a New Approaches To Africa History: Arabization, Imperialism, & Religious Duality (9)

New Approaches To Africa History: Arabization, Imperialism, & Religious Duality