GONCHA

1. Amhara Livelihood Zone Reports
Goncha Siso Enese Woreda
East Gojam Administrative Zone
Abay Beshilo Basin (ABB)
Livelihood Zone
This zone suffers from chronic
food insecurity due to erratic
rains, small landholdings,
degraded farmlands, infertile
soil, pest infestation, livestock
disease and malaria. Trade
across the river valleys is
minimal in the dry season and
impossible in the rainy season.
The middle and better-off barely
produce more than their annual
food needs. The poor /very poor
are dependent on local labor,
PSNP and firewood sales to
meet their food needs.
South East Woina Dega Central Highland Barley &
Teff (SWT) Livelihood Potato (CBP) Livelihood
Zone Zone
This is a surplus producing Degradation and high soil acidity
area. Own crop production undermine agricultural production
covers the highest proportion in this dega zone. Poor market
of the annual food access and the significant
requirement for all wealth contribution of food purchases to
groups. In a typical year, household consumption
middle and better-off wealth increases household vulnerability
groups rely heavily upon to food market shocks. The Contents
livestock and crop sales as a better-off are the only wealth
Map & livelihood zone description
means of generating cash group who get more than half
Population by livelihood zone
income. whilst the poor and their income from their own
Key parameters for monitoring
very poor rely more on labor. production. Agricultural labor is
Livelihood zone profiles
Road access is good. an important source of income for
the very poor, poor and middle
households.
Page 1

2. Amhara Livelihood Profile
Population by Livelihood Zone and Kebele (2005)
Woreda: Goncha Siso Enese
Zone: E.Gojam
Woreda population 147,725
Livelihood Zone: Livelihood Zone: Livelihood Zone:
Abay Beshilo River Basin Central Highland Barley & Potato South East Woyna Dega Teff
LZ Population: 40,444 LZ Population: 23,923 83,359
Population by Kebele: Population by Kebele: Population by Kebele:
Abar Wuha Eyesus 3,809 Barjano Akababi 5,549 Addis Hiwot 6,950
Anegote 3,353 Dequat Goshra 4,694 Akabiet 2,981
Derit Mariam Betekiristian 2,816 Embawoch Selassie Gomt 3,511 Bahare Gio 3,309
Fela Ygarda 3,867 Enbuayoch 3,005 Buza Yemerat 5,818
Gebet Medh 2,962 Enegesh Ybada 4,460 Chem Ygagra 4,881
Nebeazela 2,484 Enezeba 2,704 Debereyako 3,598
Segena Guchba 3,423 Debete Han 2,374
Selamegie 2,994 Debre Birhan 4,154
Serat Yerawoch 5,219 Debre Hayl 5,594
Wendiye Kuch 5,166 Enegodie 3,891
Yewa Agezen Meda 4,349 Eneva Eneger 3,620
Eneva Gundib 3,125
Gete Semani Waf 5,307
Gindeweyn Zuria 2,485
Lay Michae 1,044
Merhagif 3,812
Sekela Genbore 5,484
Tach Micha 1,861
Tigdar Begdo 3,503
Yebuchir Yeweya 4,011
Yekura Arasma 5,556
Page 2

3. Content of the Woreda Profiles
The Woreda Profiles are a compilation of the livelihood information directly relevant
to a single woreda. They provide a map of the woreda showing the livelihood zones
within the woreda, population data by kebele and livelihood zone within the woreda,
the relevant livelihood zone profiles and the key parameters (indicators) for
monitoring within the woreda. Please note that sources of food and income, whilst
typical of the livelihood zone, might not be found in all woredas within the livelihood
zone.
Urban Populations
Urban HEAs have not been completed for Ethiopia. Large urban centres are not
included in the livelihood baselines.
Source of Population Data
Note: The 2005 woreda population is that estimated by the Central Statistical
Authority. The list of kebeles in the woreda was taken from the 1994 census and each
kebele's 2005 population calculated by multiplying the 1994 census figure by the
increase in total woreda population since 1994. Information from the 1994 census was
used in preference to other sources of information since this represents the main
official source of population data for the woreda. Difficulties were encountered due to
changes in woreda and kebele boundaries since 1994. Many kebeles have been
combined since 1994. Where kebeles have been renamed or combined since 1994,
woreda officials were asked to assign the old 1994 kebele to one or other new kebele
in the woreda. It was sometimes not possible to locate a kebele (e.g. because woreda
officials did not recognize the name or did not include the kebele in their list). In these
cases an 'unknown' category has been included in the population analysis. A 'not
assigned' category has also been included for livelihood zones. Kebeles included in
the 'not assigned' category could not be assigned to any of the livelihood zones in the
woreda.
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4. Key Parameters
Abay Beshilo River Basin (ABB) - Key Parameters
Item Key Parameter – Quantity Key Parameter – Price
Crops • Meher Sorghum • Meher Maize (staple)
• Meher Teff • Meher Sorghum
• Meher Other Pulses • Meher Teff
• Meher Maize • Meher Other Pulses
• Honey • Honey
Livestock production • Cattle • Cattle
• Goats • Goats
Other food and cash • Firewood • Labour – weeding/ploughing
income • Labour – weeding/ploughing • Firewood
Central Highland Barley & Potato (CBP) - Key Parameters
Item Key Parameter – Quantity Key Parameter – Price
Crops • Meher Teff • Meher Maize (staple)
• Meher Barley • Meher Barley
• Meher Irish Potatoes • Meher Irish Potatoes
• Trees • Trees
Livestock production • Cattle • Cattle
• Sheep • Sheep
Other food and cash • Labour Migration • Labour Migration
income • Labour: Construction/Urban • Labour: Construction/Urban
• Firewood • Firewood
South East Woyna Dega Teff (SWT) - Key Parameters
Item Key Parameter – Quantity Key Parameter – Price
Crops • Meher Maize • Meher Maize (staple)
• Meher Teff • Meher Teff
• Meher Other Pulses • Meher Other Pulses
• Meher Wheat • Meher Wheat
• Trees • Trees
• Honey • Honey
Livestock production • Cattle • Cattle
• Goats • Goats
• Cow’s milk
Other food and cash • Labour: Weeding/Ploughing • Labour: Weeding/Ploughing
income • Labour: Harvesting • Labour: Harvesting
Page 4

5. Livelihood Profile
Amhara Region, Ethiopia
Abay Beshilo Basin Livelihood Zone (ABB) October 20071
Zone Description
The Abay Beshilo Livelihood Zone is a food insecure
area with a very long history of relief assistance. The
woredas with kebeles within the LZ are located in various
administrative zones of the Amhara region: East Gojam
(Aneded, Awabel, Baso Liben, Dejen, Enarj Enawga,
Enbise Sar Midr, Enemay, Goncha Siso Enese, Guzamn,
Hulet Ej Enese, Shebel Bereta), West Gojam, (Yilmana
Densa); South Gonder (Dera, E & W Esite, Simada, Tach
Gayint); and South Wollo (Debrasina, Mehal Sayint,
Tenta, Wegde). The Abay Beshilo Basin Livelihood
Zone is a narrow, elongated area comprising the lowland
(kola) parts of the woredas listed above. The LZ runs
beside the River Abay, and beside its tributary the Beshilo
River and is a long distance from major roads and towns.
The population is relatively scattered.
The vegetation is bush and shrubs. Natural resources in this zone include gypsum and gum arabic acacias. It is a mixed
production system with both crops and livestock. The dominant crops include sorghum, teff, maize and haricot beans.
Crop production is entirely rain fed, except in small number of localities where small-scale water harvesting practices
have been recently introduced by the Office of Agriculture and Rural Development. There is only one rainy season –
kremt - and it is important for the cultivation of both long and short cycle crops. The area is characterized by high
temperatures, erratic rainfall and sandy soils. These factors contribute to the high rate of evapo-transpiration and poor
water holding capacity. The combination of moisture stress and poor soil fertility is the limiting factor for agricultural
production. There is a high prevalence of crop pests and disease, and no utilization of treatments or chemical fertilizers
- so yields per hectare are very low.
One of the most important determinants of wealth is the ownership of livestock in general and ownership of plough
oxen in particular. Ownership of a pair of oxen allows better off households to prepare their land on time and rent-in the
land of poor and very poor households on a contractual basis. The most common livestock diseases include
pasteurellosis (all livestock), black leg (cattle and equines) and liver fluke (sheep and cattle). Regarding livestock
production, goats are dominant. There is a high prevalence of livestock disease in the area and intervention in this
regard is minimal. However, the area has uncultivated land that can be used as grazing to enhance livestock
production.
Poor physical infrastructure and complete obstruction of transportation during the rainy seasons also increase the
problem of access to food and cash income. A substantial part of the livelihood zone, particularly areas along the river
bank, are completely inaccessible even during the dry season.
In a typical year, better-off and middle households rely upon livestock and crop sales as a means of generating cash
income. For the poor and the very poor the productive safety net program (PSNP) is the major source of cash income
even in a typical year in many woredas in the LZ. The Safety Net programme is implemented (particularly in the
eastern parts of the LZ) for six months in a year and beneficiaries are paid mainly cash.
Markets
Market access is bad in this livelihood zone. Trade interaction across the river valley is minimal during the dry season
and totally impossible during the kremt (rainy) season. Poor physical infrastructure and the remote location of the
livelihood zone are the major limiting factors that restrict trade with external markets as well as between different
markets within the livelihood zone.
1
Fieldwork for the current profile was undertaken in October 2007. The information presented refers to September 2005-August 2006 (EC Meskerem
1998 to Nehase 1998), a good year by local standards. Provided there are no fundamental and rapid shifts in the economy, the information in this
profile is expected to remain valid for approximately five years (i.e. until 2012). ). The exchange rate January 2006 1USD = 8.767 ETB.
Abay Bashilo Basin Livelihood Zone
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6. As crop production is very small, almost all agricultural products are consumed locally and whatever is supplied to the
local market does not exceed the local demand. Haricot beans are the only crop supplied to external markets in urban
areas (Dejen, Mota and Debre Tabor) as well as Dessie and Addis Ababa. When grain is unavailable in the local market
during the hunger season, maize is supplied to the livelihood zone from surplus producing areas in Gojam and other
regions. Livestock and livestock products are sold in the major towns within the livelihood zone. The only opportunity
in terms of employment is the local agricultural labor.
Seasonal Calendar
M ay June July Aug. Sep. O ct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. M ar. Apr.
Rainy Seasons Dry Krem t Bega (dry season) Belg
Legend cons. green harvest w eeding planting
shoats cattle/shoats land prep cattle
Sorghum
Teff
Haricot bean
Maize
Livestock sales
Cattle in heat
Milk production
Crop sales
O ther
Local labor
Hunger season
Malaria
Rainfall Pattern
M ay Jun Jul Aug Sep O ct Nov Dec Jan Feb M ar Apr
Of all agricultural activities, land preparation (March-June) and weeding (July-September) are the most laborious and
time-consuming activities. Agriculture is entirely dependent on kremt rains that last from June to September. Maize is
harvested green from September to October and the main food crops, sorghum and teff, are harvested in November.
Except in December and January when both cattle and goats are sold, different types of livestock are sold at different
times of the year. Goats are sold around the major Christian Festivals (New Year, Christmas and Easter); cattle are sold
in the months when there is no need for oxen for agricultural activities.
Whilst migratory labor is not common, some people travel to Tapi, Metema, Wollega, Nazareth, Bale Goba and
Humera for work in December and January. Local employment opportunities are available for a relatively longer
period of time starting with weeding in July to harvesting in November.
The hunger season and the period of highest dependence on market for food purchase lasts for about two months in
September and October.
Abay Beshilo Basin Livelihood Zone
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7. Wealth Breakdown
Wealth Groups Characteristics
Land area
HH size Livestock/asset holding Other assets
cultivated
Very
3-5 0-1 timad 1-3 chicken none
Poor
3-5 goats,0-2 cattle, 1-3
Poor 4-6 0-2 timad none
chicken
6-8 goats, 1-3 oxen, 2-4
Middle 5-7 4-7 timad cattle, 0-2 donkey, 1-3 0-2 beehives
chicken
12-14 goats, 2-4 oxen, 5-7
Better-
6-8 8-10 timad cattle, 1-3 donkey, 1-3 2-4 beehives
off
chicken
0% 20% 40%
% of households 4 timads=1 hectare
Wealth is determined by land owned and cultivated, livestock possession (plough oxen, cattle and goats) There is a big
difference in the ownership of land, with the better-off owning three times more land than the very poor. Differences
in land cultivated are even greater ranging from 0-1 timad for the very poor to 8-10 timads for the better-off. This
reflects the fact that the poor and very poor do not have oxen and so are unable to cultivate all their own land, and so
rent out part of their land to the middle and better-off with an equal (half) crop sharing arrangement.
Sources of Food – A good year (2005-06)
The contribution of own crop production to the 120%
annual food requirement of the different
households positively correlates with the 100%
economic status of the wealth groups,
consistently increasing from the very poor to 80% Payment in kind
the better-off. In a typical year, while the Safety net
middle and better-off households cover more 60%
Purchase
than 75% of their annual food needs, the poor livestock prod.
40%
and very poor can only afford to cover slightly crops
more than 40% and 30% of their requirement 20%
respectively.
All wealth groups, though to a different extent, 0%
partially rely on the purchase of food to make V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off
up their annual food deficit. The contribution
purchase food ranges from 5% to the better-off
to more than 50% for the very poor. In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of minimum
Consumption of livestock products is only food requirements, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100
relevant to the better-off and middle. However, kcals per person per day.
the better-off consume more as a result of
owning a larger number of livestock. The poor and the very poor receive food from the PSNP program.
Abay Beshilo Basin Livelihood Zone
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8. Sources of Cash – a good year (2005-06)
100% Incomes in this livelihood zone are generally
other
low. There are differences in the
safety nets composition and relative importance of
80%
agr.labour income options available to the different
60% self-em ploym ent wealth groups. The middle and the better-off
livestock sales get most of their income from livestock and
40% l/stock prod. sales
crops sales, whilst the poor and the very poor
are dependent on self-employment (firewood
crop sales
20% and charcoal sales), local agricultural labor, a
little labor migration and the safety net
0% program. In all except the very poor wealth
V.Poor Poor M iddle Better-off group, livestock provide more income than
crops.
The graph provides a breakdown of total cash income according to income
source.
Annual
900-1200 1300-1500 1400-1800 2250-2650
income (ETB)
Expenditure Patterns – a good year (2005-06)
Annual expenses are divided into 100%
eight different categories. All
wealth groups purchase vetch, the other
80%
very poor, poor and middle also gifts
purchase staple food (sorghum) in tax
60% clothes
addition the very poor also social sev.
purchase maize. With the inputs
exception of the very poor, all 40% water
HH items
wealth groups invest in animal non-staple food
drugs and tools. The middle and 20% staple food
better off also hire local labor. The
poor and the very poor have limited 0%
resources to invest in production of V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off
either crops or livestock.
The graph provides a breakdown of total cash expenditure by category of expenditure.
The amount of cash spent on each category as well as the quantity and quality of items purchased varies depending on
the economic status of each socio-economic group.
All wealth groups except the better-off purchase staple food. Non-staple food purchase by the very poor is higher as
they purchase more pulses than the other wealth groups whose own production is marginally more diverse. While
expenditure on staple food decreases with increasing wealth, expenditure on clothing and social services follow the
reverse trend.
Hazards
In this Livelihood Zone, erratic rains, pest infestation, livestock disease and malaria are the recurring problems
affecting agricultural productivity and human wellbeing.
Erratic rains. Drought, which can include both insufficient rainfall and uneven distribution over the rainy season, is
the single most important cause of acute food insecurity in the livelihood zone.
Crop pests are a chronic problem in the livelihood zone, of which the most hazardous are stalk borer (sorghum and
maize), Wollo bush crickets (teff), aphids (all crops), and cut worm. Root rot is also a problem.
Livestock disease. Anthrax (cattle and goat), goat pox, black leg, and internal and external parasites (cattle and goats)
Malaria. Endemic and highly prevalent especially in September and October - the months immediately after the rainy
seasons. In years of high incidence, food security can be affected because farmers may not be able to work during the
critical seasons of agricultural activity and labor migration.
Weed. Striga (sorghum and maize)
Coping Strategies
Coping strategies employed by different wealth groups vary depending upon various factors including phase and
frequency of the hazard and the asset base of households.
Sale of labor and labor migration. This strategy is particularly employed by the poor and the very poor. Compared to
the other wealth groups, poor and very poor households have fewer options that they can use in bad years. Their main
Abay Beshilo Basin Livelihood Zone
Page 8

9. option is to increase the number of people working and the duration (both locally and outside of the zone).
Increased sale of livestock. This is an important strategy for better-off and middle households. These wealth groups
try to maintain the productive assets until all efforts to protect asset depletion are no more applicable. Sale of livestock
is less of an option for the poor and very poor who may only be able to sell a small number of additional goats (poor)
and poultry (poor and very poor).
Switching of expenditure from non-food to staple food items. This is a common strategy for expanding purchases in
a bad year. In a bad year, households report reducing expenditure on a range of non-food items and purchase staple
food. Some of these strategies have very negative effect in the case of reduced minimum non-staple items such as
expenditure on schooling basic inputs. Reduced expenditure on non-food items can be purchasing either lower quality
or small quantity.
Firewood and charcoal sales. This is specifically employed by poor and very poor households only.
Summary
Communities residing within the Abay-Beshilo Livelihood zone suffer from chronic food insecurity due to a
combination of various factors including erratic rains, small landholdings, highly degraded farmlands, infertile soil,
pest infestation, livestock disease and malaria. Poor physical infrastructure is also a serious problem in the livelihood
zone. Trade interaction across the rivers valley is very minimal during the dry season and totally impossible during the
kremt season.
The middle and better-off can barely produce much more than their annual food needs, whilst the poor/very poor are
dependant on food purchases. The main food crops cultivated are sorghum, teff and maize. Livestock are an important
source of income for the middle and better-off households with over half of their income coming from livestock sales
and livestock product sales.
The very poor one-fifth of the population cultivate very small amounts of land - less than they have available, because
they do not have oxen to provide draught power for land preparation. They are forced to purchase a significant portion
of annual food needs, and their major income sources are precarious: local labor, PSNP and firewood sales.
Abay Beshilo Basin Livelihood Zone
Page 9

10. Livelihood Profile
Amhara Region, Ethiopia
Central Highland Barley and Potato Livelihood Zone (CBP)
August 20071
Zone Description
The Central Highland Barley and Potato livelihood zone
(CBP) spreads across Bure, Dega Damot, Dembecha, Jabi
Tehnan, Mecha, Quarit, Sekela, and Yilmana Densa woredas
in West Gojam; Ankasha, Banja, Fagta Lakoma,, Guagusa
Shikudad, and Guangua woredas in Agew; and Awabel,
Bibugn, Debay Telatgen, Enarj Enawga, Enbise Sar Midir,
Enemay, Goncha Siso Enese, Gonje, Hulet Ej Enese,
Michakel and Senan woredas in East Gojam. The majestic
Choke and Lake mountains are prominent features of the
terrain in this predominantly dega area. Temperatures average
a temperate 5 to 15 degrees Celsius. The source of the Blue
Nile is located in this zone, reliably fed by the substantial
1200 to 1400 mm of rainfall that falls on the zone yearly.
Vegetation is moderately dense, comprised mostly of
eucalyptus and juniper trees. Bamboo is grown around the
homestead for construction of household furniture and
equipment. The population is very dense, at 210 to 220 people per km.2 In most cases humans and livestock share water
from the same source (rivers and streams); when they don’t humans use wells and springs. There is no payment for water
for humans except in woreda towns. The zone is well connected to surrounding areas via the Debre Markos-Enjibara
highway which runs through it.
Mixed production of crops and livestock are the cornerstone of this zone’s economy. Agriculture activities are dependent
on the kremt rains which fall from May to October. Some households use irrigation, particularly for potato production.
The main crops cultivated are barley and potato, the bulk of it produced for household consumption. Extensive
degradation and high soil acidity have reduced the agricultural potential of the region. Manure from cattle is an important
productive input in this zone. Draught power is provided mainly by horses, which are cheaper to maintain than oxen.
Land preparation is done by men. Women assist with weeding and harvesting activities. Hiring labour is untypical for any
wealth group. The main hazards to crop production are late blight which affects potatoes, and smut and rust which affect
barley. Traditional disease and pest control measures are used to prevent the spread of disease. This zone suffers from a
food deficit every year.
Raising sheep, cattle and horses is a key economic strategy. Sheep are the more commonly sold livestock, usually
between the ages of 4 to 12 months. The demand for sheep peaks during religious festivals. Cattle are valuable
possessions mostly owned by wealthier households, and serve as longer term investments. Few cattle are sold. Mature
cows are sometimes sold after 7 or 8 years of age, and thereafter replaced from within the herd. Livestock free-graze and
feed on crop residues and/or collected grass. Children are responsible for herding livestock. The main hazards to livestock
production are pasteurellosis, internal parasites, black leg, and anthrax. Internal parasites affect all livestock,
pasteurellosis in sheep and cattle, and black leg in cattle. Treatments for these diseases, including vaccinations, are
available from both the Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development (BoARD) and the market for cash. The same
applies to inputs for livestock production.
Other important economic activities are wage labour and the sale of eucalyptus trees. Migratory labour opportunities are
available in Shindi, Humera, Wollega, and Metemma for maize and sesame weeding and harvest. Migration is a male
activity, undertaken from June to August and from November to December.
1
Field work for the current profile was undertaken from 4/17/2007 to 5/2/2007. The information presented refers to October 2005-
September 2006 (EC Tekemt 1998 to Meskerem 1999), a relatively good year by local standards (i.e. a year of above average
production and rural food security, when judged in the context of recent years). Provided there are no fundamental and rapid shifts in
the economy, the information in this profile is expected to remain valid for approximately five years (i.e. until 2011). The reference
year exchange rate: 1USD=8.82 ETB.
CBP - Central Highland Barley and Potato.doc
Page 10

11. Casual urban labour opportunities, predominantly for men, are available in neighbouring towns, peaking from June to
August, though they are available throughout the year. The poor and very poor groups buy eucalyptus trees from the
middle and better-off groups; older trees tend to be split and sold mainly for firewood, and younger trees are sold as poles
for home construction. This happens throughout the year. There are no specific credit programmes in this zone, though
some households take credit from the Amhara Credit and Savings Institution.
Markets
Potatoes are the main crop traded. They are transported from local markets to markets in Addis Ababa, Bahir Dar, and
Gondar. There is demand all year round, though the peak trading period is from July to September. Maize and finger
millet are imported into the zone when local food supplies have been exhausted, from June to December. They are
brought in from surrounding areas in Birsheleko, Bure and Shinde.
Sheep and cattle are the popular livestock in the market. Sheep sales increase during the religious festival season in April
(Fasika/Easter), September (EnkutatashNew Year) and January (Genna/Christmas). Cattle demand peaks in March and
April, though both types of animals are sold throughout the year.
Poorly maintained roads winding through the mountains are the biggest barrier to the inflow of traders and commodities
into the zone. Residents of the zone usually walk up to 6 hours to visit the market.
In this chronically food insecure zone, in normal times 75% of households have at least one member who migrates to
Metema, Humera, Wollega, Shindi, and Birsheleko in search of agricultural work. The first wave of migrants leaves
between June and September for weeding labour, and a second wave leaves for harvesting labour in November and
December. A minority of some 25% seek opportunities within the towns in surrounding areas.
Seasonal Calendar
Mar
Mar Apr
Apr May
May Jun
Jun Jul
Jul Aug
Aug Sep Oct Nov
Nov Dec
Dec Jan
Jan Feb
Feb
Seasons Bega Kiremt Tibi Meher
Legend harvest Weeding planting
Land Preparation
Barley
Potato
Livestock sales
Cattle (in-heat)
Livestock births
Milk production
Other
Urban labour
Labour migration
Food purchase
Hunger season
Eucalyptus sales
Rainfall Pattern
Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb
There are four main seasons in the zone, namely bega (dry) from March to May, kremt (rains) from June to August (main
rainy season), tibi from September to November, and meher from December to February (harvest season).
Agricultural activities are planned around the kremt rainy season. Land preparation for short-cycle potato cultivation
begins in January, whilst for long-cycle barley it begins in June. Eucalyptus sales peak in April, May and June. Urban
labor is most common from June to August, whilst milk output peaks from July to November. The food purchase season
is relatively lengthy, peaking for 6 months from July to December.
The livestock ‘season’ begins in July soon after the rains commence. An increase in cattle sales is seen between March
and May as households seek to purchase draught power for the upcoming land preparation period, whilst sheep sales peak
during festival months (April, September and January).
CBP - Central Highland Barley and Potato.doc
Page 11

12. Wealth Breakdown
Wealth Groups Characteristics
Land area
HH size Crops cultivated Livestock Holding Other
cultivated
Very 0-40 eucalyptus
4-6 0-2 timad barley, potato 2-5 sheep, 0-3 hens
Poor trees
4-8 sheep, 0-1 horse, 70-200 eucalyptus
Poor 5-7 0-3 timad barley, potato
1-3 hens trees
100-300
1-3 cattle, 6-12 sheep,
Middle 5-7 3-5 timad barley, potato eucalyptus trees,
1 horse, 2-4 hens
0-125 bamboo
3-4 cattle, 0-1 oxen, 250-750
Better-
6-7 5-7.5 timad barley, potato, teff 8-14 sheep, 2 horses, eucalyptus trees,
off
2-4 hens 0-200 bamboo
0% 20% 40%
% of households
The main determinants of wealth are the amount of land owned, the ownership of cattle and sheep, and the ownership
of horses for draught power. Land holdings in the zone are generally small, ranging from 0-2 timads, 2-4 timads, 3-5
timads and 3.5-5 timads for the very poor, poor, middle and better-off respectively.2 Ownership of horses is important
for productivity because access to draught power determines household capacity to utilise available land holdings. The
poor who haven’t the capital to obtain their own draught power, or who lack family labour, are compelled to rent-out
land to the better-off, who have the capacity to cultivate more than they own. Land rental arrangements usually divide
the harvest from the rented land equally between the two parties. The biggest barrier to poor household ownership of
draught power is the lack of capital; the main constraints on crop production among the poor are land degradation;
shortage of farmland and crop diseases affecting barley and potato.
Livestock ownership is also important for building household capacity to cope with livelihood shocks. The interest in
generating new stock favours the ownership of mature female animals. Sheep provide most of the regular income from
livestock. Cattle are more valuable assets, and they are owned only by the middle and better-off households. They are
longer term investments. Beyond a lack of money, the biggest barrier to ownership of livestock is lack of feed:
livestock production in the zone is limited by diminishing availability of grazing land. The better off at times grow
pasture on a portion of their land to feed their cattle.
The search for work is the main livelihood strategy for poor households, and so they depend on the availability of
workers in the family for a significant portion of their income.
Sources of Food – A good year (2005-06)
Crop production accounts for 60% to 120%
70% of the better-off households’
food, and around half of the middle
100%
group’s. The poor and very poor
obtain one-third and one-fifth of their
80% purchase
food from own crop production. The
main crops consumed by all wealth payment in kind
groups are purchased maize and 60% livestock prod.
finger millet, and home-grown crops
potatoes and barley. Food purchase 40%
increases in importance as wealth
decreases. Vetch is also purchased, 20%
the middle and better-off groups
purchasing more than the poor. The 0%
zone is not in the Safety Net V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off
programme and received no food aid
during the reference year, even
though there is a chronic food gap for In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of minimum food
requirements, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100 kcals per person
all apart from the better-off. per day.
2
1 timad equals 0.25 ha
CBP - Central Highland Barley and Potato.doc
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13. Payment in kind provides on between 5% and 10% of food for the very poor, poor, and middle households, mainly for
work done outside the zone. The participation of the middle households in work migration, unusual elsewhere, reflects
the high levels of poverty and food insecurity in the livelihood zone. The consumption of eggs, butter, and milk is
general indicator of well being. The limited contribution of livestock products, between 1% and 2% for the middle and
better-off, confirms that households cannot afford to consume luxury items. The significant contribution of purchases
demonstrates low self- reliance arising from low productivity and small land holdings. Poor market access (due to
absence of road access, mountainous topography and distance from the market) and the significant contribution of food
purchases to household consumption, accentuate household vulnerability to food market shocks.
Sources of Cash – a good year (2005-06)
100%
The majority of households earn
most of their income from
agricultural wage labor. Most of this
80% is earned from labour migration,
firewood and tree sales whilst a smaller contribution comes
labour sales
from casual labour, mostly
60%
construction, in local towns. Paid
livestock sales
work provides three-quarters of
l/stock prod. sales
40% income for the very poor and poor
crop sales households, and half of the middle.
20% Livestock sales give between one-
third and one-half of better-off
income, one-quarter for the middle,
0%
one tenth for the poor and 5% for the
V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off very poor – all mostly from sheep
The graph provides a breakdown of total cash income according to income Chickens Are also sold by
source. everybody.
Annual
1850- 1750- 1950- 2250-
income
2350 2250 2350 2750
(ETB)
Livestock product sales contribute 2% to the very poor and poor incomes, and between 5% and 10% to the middle and
better off households respectively. The poor households sell mainly eggs, while the better-off also sell butter.
The sale of potatoes is an important source of income for the better-off, and overall crop sales average one-quarter of
their income, while the middle and poor earn a less distinguished 5%.
Eucalyptus sales and firewood sales play an important role in income for all wealth groups.
Expenditure Patterns – a good year (2005-06)
Purchasing staple food is the
largest expense for all groups. 100%
Staple food expenditure increases other
as wealth and crop production 80% tax
decrease. There is limited cash clothes
left for income for non-staple food social serv.
60% inputs
purchases, comprised mainly of
HH items
pulses (for all groups) and
40% non-staple food
potatoes (for the poor and very
staple food
poor). This takes up 3% of very
poor and poor expenditure and 20%
one-tenth of the middle and
better-off’s.
0%
V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off
The graph provides a breakdown of total cash expenditure according to category of
expenditure.
CBP - Central Highland Barley and Potato.doc
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14. Household items, namely kerosene, utensils, soap and milling fees comprise the second largest expenditure for all
groups, taking up between 10% and 20% of very poor and poor expenditure income, and a quarter of the middle and
better-offs. The bulk of the expenditure on this line is spent on milling.
The better-off households invest one-fifth of expenditure on livestock restocking, credit repayment, and animal drugs.
This reflects an effort to build and protect livestock holdings. The middle spends 10% of total expenditure on animal
drugs, while the poor expend only 1%.
Investment in education and access to health services is 3% for the very poor and poor, and 5% for the middle and
better-off. Clothes expenditure comprises 7% of expenditure for the very poor, poor, and better off, and 8% for the
middle.
Hazards
The major hazard in the zone is land degradation which not only undermines present productivity but also threatens
future crop yields. Soils in the zone are infertile and acidic.
The prevalence of potato blight is a chronic problem affecting potato yields.
The shortage of pasture and forage diminishes livestock condition, and prevents ownership of larger livestock herds.
Hailstorms and frost are further hazards occurring every year.
Coping Strategies
The poor households’ general lack of access to productive activities forces them to intensify the search for migrant
work opportunities during bad years. People migrate to more distant areas, and additional household members join the
search for work. The sale of firewood is an additional coping strategy for the poor. The extent to which firewood sales
can be expanded is limited by availability of firewood and ability of the market to absorb the increased supply of
firewood.
The better-off respond to hardship through the increased sale of livestock. However, existing livestock herds are small
in the zone and major or prolonged shocks can seriously deplete herds. Their secondary strategy is to increase the sale
of eucalyptus.
Summary
Extensive degradation and high soil acidity severely undermine agricultural production in this dega zone. Crop
production is particularly low for the poor and very poor who are constrained by poor availability of cultivable land
and the lack of draught power. Low crop production increases household dependence on the market to access food. The
commonly purchased crops are finger millet and maize, and modest amounts of potatoes and pulses. The participation
of middle households in labor activities in exchange for food is indicative of the high levels of food insecurity in the
zone. Poor market access and the significant contribution of food purchases to household consumption, accentuates
household vulnerability to food market shocks. The better-off are distinguished as the only wealth group earning more
than half their income from primary production activities – with potatoes falling a long way behind livestock as a cash
earner. The search for agricultural work opportunities is the main income earning strategy for the very poor, poor and
middle households. Expenditure on social services and clothes is low for all wealth groups.
CBP - Central Highland Barley and Potato.doc
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15. Livelihood Profile
Amhara Region, Ethiopia
South West Woina Dega Teff Livelihood Zone August 20071
Zone Description
The South West Woina Dega Teff livelihood
zone is one of the surplus producing areas in
Amhara Region. It incorporates parts of
woredas in West Gojam (Yilmana Densa),
Agew (Ankasha, Guagusa Shikudad) and East
Gojam (Aneded, Awabel, Baso Liden, Bibugn,
Debay Telatgen, Dejen, Enarj Enawga, Enbise
Sar Midir, Enemay, Goncha Siso Enese, Hulet,
Ej Enese and Sebel Bereta). It is in a primarily
woina dega agro-ecological zone and the
topography is mostly plain. The zone is within
the Abay (Blue Nile) Drainage Basin. Tindefeji,
Yenjuit, Sihoa, Bogena and Chemoga are the
major rivers crossing the zone. Widespread
deforestation has resulted in a landscape almost
devoid of natural vegetation apart from stands
of eucalyptus trees around homesteads. The
population density is moderate.
Although there is a very high potential for
irrigation, agriculture is totally rainfed. Total annual rainfall ranges approximately from 900-1200 mm per year. The
zone has a long term mean annual rainfall of 1181 mm, and in most years precipitation is very favourable for the
cultivation of different crops, the most important of which are teff, wheat and maize, grown for both consumption and
sale. The zone usually produces a food surplus. Ox-plowing is used to prepare the land, whilst weeding and
harvesting are the most labor intensive crop production activities, for which the middle and better-off groups pay for
labor in cash. The main crop pests and diseases are Wollo bush cricket, African boll worm, stalk borer, aphids and red
teff worm. Treatment is available from the market and in some cases from the BoARD for cash. Agricultural inputs
(fertilizers and improved seed) are also available either from the market or BoARD for credit and cash.
The main types of livestock are sheep, cattle and horses which free-graze and feed on crop residues and/or collected
grass. Water is obtained from both major and minor rivers, hand-dug wells and sometimes springs. Humans in some
cases share water from rivers with animals. The main diseases affecting animals are black leg, anthrax, sheep and
goat pox and pasteurellosis. Treatment is available either from the market or the BoARD for cash, as are livestock
inputs such as vaccines. In comparison to the neighbouring Blue Nile gorge area disease prevalence in SWT is lower
and lactation length is longer. Apart from crop and livestock and butter sales (and honey sales by the wealthier) the
other element of income concerns only the poorer households: paid work.
Markets
Debre Markos and the woreda towns hold the major grain and livestock markets in the zone. There is good market
access since the road network is relatively good and most kebeles (village areas) in the zone are reasonably close to the
main road and to the main urban centres. All these markets serve as the centers of supply for local consumers and transit
to other markets outside the Livelihood Zone. The main crops sold are teff, maize and wheat from January to June. Teff
is the only item exported to other regions mainly Tigray and Addis Ababa. Livestock (sheep and cattle traded all year
round) and the other crops are supplied to local consumers. Maize and wheat/sorghum are the main grains bought locally
or from kebeles in the nearby Blue Nile gorge lowlands. Most paid work is found in the local rural area though some is
performed in the local towns and less outside the zone.
1
Field work for the current profile was undertaken from September to October 2007. The information presented refers to September 2005-August
2006 (EC Meskerem 1998 to Nehase 1998), a good year by local standards. Provided there are no fundamental and rapid shifts in the economy, the
information in this profile is expected to remain valid for approximately five years (i.e. until 2012). The reference year exchange rate: 1USD = 8.59
ETB.
South West Woina dega Teff Livelihood Zone
Page 15

16. Seasonal Calendar
M ay. June July Aug. S ep. O ct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. M ar. Apr.
Rainy S easons Krem t Tibi M eher Bega
Legend cons. green harvest W eeding planting
shoats cattle and shoats cattle
Teff
M aize
W heat
Chickpea
V etch
B eans
Livestock sales
Cattle in heat
B irths
M ilk production
Crop sales
O ther
Local labour
Urban Labour
Honey
Hunger season
Food P urchase
R ainfall Pattern
Land preparation from March to June, weeding from June to August and harvesting from October to January are the
main agricultural activities. Teff and wheat are the main short cycle crops grown whilst maize is the main long-cycle
crop. There is no intercropping. Local agricultural employment is available mainly from July to December. Debre
Markos and other urban centres in the zone also offer employment from January to March. Poor and very poor
households also migrate mainly to Humera (Tigray), Teppi (Benishangul Gumuz), Arsi Negelle and Wellega (Oromia)
in different seasons every year looking for employment opportunities.
Wealth Breakdown
Wealth Groups Characteristics
Land area
HH size Crops Cultivated Livestock Other assets
cultivated
Very Green cons Maize, 20-40 eucalyptus
4-5 1-3 timads 1-3 sheep, 1-3 hens
Poor Maize, Wheat, Teff trees
Green cons Maize,
3-5 sheep, 0-2 oxen, 0-1 100-150 eucalyptus
Poor 4-6 3-5 timads Maize Wheat, Teff,
cattle, 1-3 hens trees
Vetch
Green cons Maize, 6-8 sheep, 1-3 oxen, 2-4
400-600 eucalyptus
Middle 5-7 6-9 timads Maize Wheat, Teff, cattle, 0-2 donkeys, 3-5
trees, 1-3 beehives
Vetch, Honey hens
Green cons Maize, 8-12 sheep, 2-4 oxen, 4-
Better- 9-12 700-800 eucalyptus
7-8 Maize Wheat, Teff, 6 cattle, 1-3 donkeys, 3-
off timads trees, 3-5 beehives
Vetch, Beans, Honey 5 hens
0% 20% 40%
% of households
1 hectare=4 timads
Wealth is determined by the size of land owned by households as well as by herd size in general and ownership of
plough oxen in particular. On the basis of these criteria, four distinct wealth groups (very poor, poor, middle and better-
off) were identified. Households also differ in the ownership eucalyptus trees and beehives. While beehives are owned
South West Woina dega Teff Livelihood Zone
Page 16

17. by the better-off and middle households, eucalyptus trees are owned by all, but wealthier people have far more trees. The
better-off also grow beans which the poor do not; this is because the former own enough land and plough-oxen and they
commonly rent-in extra land from poorer farmers who have no oxen. These gain the advantage of half the harvest on that
land – a harvest gained from better cultivation than they could possibly have achieved, given the capacity of the renter to
make sufficient and timely ploughing passes especially for the demanding teff, and also to buy fertilizers and other
inputs – although these are expensive in relation even to wealthier farmers’ budgets and are often used sparingly, below
the recommended rate. They also bear the cost of employing local labour during weeding and harvesting months. In
terms of livestock the poorer households lack money and access to credit to keep more whilst the wealthier lack grazing
land, animal feed and improved animal breeds. There are few other sources of income generation, although there are
some government attempts to help the landless rural youth benefit from non-agricultural activities in their locality.
Sources of Food – A good year (2005-06)
Own crop production is the most important
source of food for all wealth groups. Maize, 120%
wheat and teff are the main sources of food
for all groups, even providing just above gifts
100%
half the staple food of the very poor. Better-
off and middle households essentially and 80% food aid
more than cover their staple food
requirement from their own production, 60% purchase
although the middle sell teff and buy the
cheaper maize. For the poorer groups staples 40%
purchase is vital for survival. payment in kind
Consumption of livestock products is only 20%
enjoyed by the better-off and middle wealth livestock prod.
groups, though its contribution in calorie 0%
terms is small. Overall this is a picture of a V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off
comparatively productive and food secure
area.
In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of minimum food
requirements, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100 kcals per person
per day.
Sources of Cash – a good year (2005-06)
100% The proportion of crop sales in household
employment earnings (including here eucalyptus sales)
is higher here than in most other livelihood
80% zones, and even the very poor make half
l/stock prod. their money from crops alone. Everybody
60% sales sells teff and wheat, but the wealthier also
sell some pulses. The real differentiation
40% livestock between wealthier and poorer households is
sales in where they get the balance of their
earnings. The wealthier can rely on
20% livestock and product sales: cattle, goats,
crop sales
chickens, butter, eggs, skins and honey.
0% The poor sell goats, chickens and eggs, but
V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off they must also undertake paid work –
particularly the very poor.
There is only a small amount of petty trade
Annual performed by villagers in the zone.
1300- 2050- 3750- 5550-
income
1800 2550 4250 6050
(ETB)
The graph provides a breakdown of total cash income
according to income source.
South West Woinadega Livelihood Zone
Page 17

18. Expenditure Patterns – a good year (2005-06)
The expenditure categories of all wealth
100%
groups are similar except that the better-off
do not purchase staple food.
Staple food is the highest single expense 80% other
for very poor households spend most in
gifts
staple food purchases whilst they spend
much less than wealthier families on non- 60% tax
staple foods in absolute cash terms (their
social serv.
total expenditure, like their income, is one-
third of wealthier families’ income, or 40% inputs
less). The poorer purchase vetch whilst the
HH items
wealthier buy sugar and oil. The graph provides a breakdown of total cash expenditure according to
Again in absolute cash terms the 20%
category of expenditure. The graph provides a breakdown of total c
non-staple food
expenditure by wealthier farmers on inputs staple food
is much higher than the poorer farmers,
0%
and they spend more too on social services
(school and medical costs), although this V.Poor Poor Middle Better-
The graph provides a breakdown of total cash expenditure
expenditure is proportionately small across according off
the board. The graph provides a breakdown of total cash expenditure according to
category of expenditure.
Hazards
Crop pests: Wollo bush cricket (teff), African boll worm (pulses), stalk borer (maize), aphids (pulses) and red teff
worm.
Livestock disease: Black leg (cattle), anthrax (cattle), sheep pox, pasteurellosis (cattle and sheep).
Increased cost of inputs: Particularly fertilizer (& the low supply of improved seeds) may be seen as a man-made
hazard to production.
Coping Strategies
Intensification of labour sales. This strategy is employed by the poor and the very poor, extending the duration of
work migration and involving more members of the household in both local and migratory paid work.
Minimize non-essential expenditures. This is strategy employed by all wealth groups. In a bad year, households report
reducing expenditure on a range of non-food items in favour of purchasing staple food. The middle and better-off
households also use up grain and pulses from their stock and reduce consumption.
Increased sale of livestock. This is an important strategy for better-off and middle households. But they try to maintain
fertile females until all efforts to protect assets are defeated by want.
Summary
The South West Woina Dega Teff livelihood zone is one of the surplus producing areas in Amhara Region. The most
important determinants of wealth are the size of land owned by households and the ownership of livestock in general
and ownership of plough oxen in particular. Own crop production covers the highest proportion of the annual food
requirement for all wealth groups. The main crops consumed are maize, wheat and teff, although teff and wheat are also
the most sold crops. In a typical year, middle and better-off wealth groups rely on crop and livestock sales as the means
of generating nearly all cash income, whilst poorer households must also engage in paid work, local and migratory. The
main livestock are sheep, cattle and horses. Livestock sales contribute relatively more to the income of the middle and
better-off than to that of the poor and very poor.
Road access is good; this promotes relatively active trade interaction within the zone and between the zone and external
markets. Expansion of the road network can further enhance the economic situation of communities.
Crop pest, livestock disease and unaffordable input prices have been the major problems affecting rural communities in
general and poor and very poor households in particular. Coping strategies include the intensification of labor sales,
minimizing non-essential expenditure and increasing livestock sales.
South West Woina dega Teff Livelihood Zone
Page 18