An investigation of the potential of international project activities for student motivation

University of East London, UK

Master of Arts
English Language Teaching
(MA ELT) Dissertation

An investigation of the potential of international project
activities for student motivation:
A Slovenian lower secondary school case study.

Mentor & Supervisor: Author:
Dr. John Gray Magdalena Bobek
ID No:0735560
May 2010

Acknowledgements

I would like to acknowledge with profound gratitude the help provided by my mentor and
advisor, dr. John Gray, professor at the University of East London, UK, who stood by me one
hundred per cent and guided me through my studies. Being a distance-learning student was
often quite lonely, but with his help and expertise I was able to confront most of my queries
without any particular obstacles.

I would also like to thank my distance-learning colleagues from all over the world with whom
I spent endless hours discussing and debating online and exchanging teaching ideas. I think I
have become a better person having had the priviledge of getting to know all of you. It was an
experience I will never forget. Thank you.

My thanks also go to my family, especially my sons and husband who stood by me and
boosted my morale in finishing my studies. Last but not least, I would like to thank the
teacher and student respondents who took the time to participate in the research survey, as
well as our school headteacher who believed in me and gave me some free space to be able to
complete my life's dream of getting my Master's Degree in English Language Teaching.

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Abstract

Being a language practitioner I have always considered motivation as one of the most
important prerequisites for successful and effective learning especially with learners at the
lower secondary school level between the ages of 13-15, an age full of distractions and
beguilement, where the only thing that matters is the world that revolves around them. As
teachers we want to give our students the very best, but often find it difficult to motivate them
mainly because of all the different factors that influence the learning process. For many
second/foreign language learners, teachers represent the first real contact with the target
language, which makes our job as educators even more challenging because we are aware that
the students' lack of motivation may influence their perception of the target language as well
as their language performance. Motivation, in all its complexity, is an aspect of teaching that
should not be taken lightly, as it can influence 'the rate and success of foreign language
learning' (Wang 2008:30), in 'provid[ing] the primary impetus to initiate learning foreign
language and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process'
(Dŏrnyei 1998:117 in ibid:31).

Given its crucial influence on second/foreign language learning I begin my dissertation with a
closer look at the importance of motivation in English Language Teaching, what it entails, the
various factors influencing it and what stimulates it. The literature review analyses the
influences on student behaviour and achievement and looks at reasons why some learners find
language learning so difficult while others embrace it. The indispensable role of the teacher in
motivating learners to learn, and how they can contribute to making language learning an
unforgettable experience for all concerned is given special attention. A detailed analysis of
project-based learning as one of the strategies used not only for motivating learners, but for
enhancing learner autonomy and independence is also provided. This, in turn, leads to the
underlying issue of my dissertation which is to investigate the potential of international
project activities for student motivation based on a Slovenian lower secondary school case
study involving 30 student participants aged 13-16 and three teachers. My decision to persue
this topic stems from my perception as a language teacher who has incorporated international
project activities into my teaching that they are good for motivation and something worth
exploring in greater depth. The results of the research, despite its small-scale, look very
promising. The respondents see project-based learning in a very positive light not only for

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stimulating motivation, but for helping develop and maintain it as well as enhancing
communicative competence. They stress the important role of the teacher as a guide towards
achieving learner independence and autonomy and the need for the teacher's positive attitude
and good rapport with students in making project-based learning possible. International
project activities are seen by the respondents as a way of helping them regain their sense of
purpose for learning the target language, as they are putting their knowledge of the target
language to good use. The Research concludes with suggestions to those practitioners who
have not yet put project work, and particularly international project activities, to the test, to at
least consider incorporating them into their teaching.

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Key words

Intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, English Language Teaching, learner, student,
communicative competence, autonomy, learner-centred, project-based learning, project work,
mixed-ability classes, international project activities

List of abbreviations
ELT – English Language Teaching
L1 – the mother tongue
L2 – second or foreign language / target language
ESL – English as a Second Language
ICT - Information and Communication Technology

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………………...ii

Abstract ...............................................................................................................................iii

Key words …………………………………………...………………………………........v

List of abbreviations ………………………………………………………………........v

Table of Contents ……………………………………………………………………….vi

Chapter One: Introduction……………………………………………………….........1

1.1 Overview and significance of the study ………………………………………………..1
1.2 The research questions ………………………………………………………………… 2
1.3 Structure of the thesis …………………………………………………………………..2

Chapter Two: Literature Review ………………………………………………........4

2.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………..4
2.2 Motivation ……………………………………………………………………………….4
2.2.1 Theories of motivation ……………………………………………………………….4
2.2.2 Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation …………………………………………………6
2.2.3 Motivation from the perspective of the learner ………………………………………7
2.2.4 Motivation from the perspective of the teacher ……………………………………..11
2.3 Project-based learning ………………………………………………………………....13
2.3.1 Project work for enhancing learner-centredness and autonomy……………………..14
2.3.2 Project work for dealing with differentiation in mixed-ability classes ……………...16
2.4 Coping with problems in using project work in ELT ……........................................17
2.4.1 Power relations and group processes ………………………………………………...17
2.4.2 The question of authenticity …………..……………………………………………..20
2.4.3 The language question………………………………………………………………..21
2.5 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………24

Chapter Three: The Research Design ……………………………………………..26

3.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….26

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3.2 The participants and research site……………….……………………………………26
3.3 The research methods..…………………………………………………………………27
3.3.1 The questionnaire…………………………………………………………………..27
3.3.2 The interviews….…………………………………………………………………. 28

Chapter Four: Data Results Analysis and Discussion …………………………30

4.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….30
4.2 Factors influencing motivation in foreign language learning ……………………….30
4.3 Motivation and communicative competence………………………………………….32
4.4 The question of relevancy………………………………………………………………32
4.5 Coping with problems encountered in project-based learning………………………33

Chapter Five: Conclusion and Suggestions for Further Research …………36
5.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….36
5.2 A summary of the research outcomes ………………………………………………...36
5.3 The research questions and key ideas ………………………………………………...37
5.4 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………38
5.5 Suggestions for further research ………………………………………………………39

Appendices ……………………………………………………………………………….41

Appendix 1- Klassen's ethnographic study cited by Auerbach ……………………..41
Appendix 2-Examples of project tasks ……………………………………………….42
Appendix 3-Permission Declaration by school headteacher for conducting
the survey …………………………………………………………………43
Appendix 4-The survey questionnaire………………………………………………..44
Appendix 5-Student interview questions……………………………………………..48
Appendix 6-Teacher interview questions …………………………………………...49
Appendix 7- Interview with Teacher C (by way of example for the reader) ……...50
Appendix 8 - Questionnaire results …………………………………………………53

Bibliography ……………………………………………………………………………58

Authorship statement ………………………………………………………………...64

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Chapter One
Introduction

1.1 Overview and significance of the study

Motivation, as '[one of the main deter]minants of second/foreign language (L2) learning
achievement' (Dörnyei 1994:273), has often been an issue of debate among language
practitioners all over the world as they attempt to understand it and find strategies with which
to foster and maintain it throughout the learning process. Why is it that even though 'all
learners exhibit an inborn curiosity to explore the world' and 'are likely to find the learning
experience intrinsically pleasant', this ''curiosity'' is soon 'vitiated' once they start school when
faced with 'compulsory school attendance, curriculum content' and 'grades' (Thanasoulas
2002:no pagination)? Given the consensus regarding its significance in L2 learning, the
primary focus of my study will be motivation with a look at some of the different theories that
have attempted to explain it, the different factors that influence it throughout the learning
process including the learners' individuality, the beliefs they have about themselves, their
reasons for learning L2 and the significant role of the teacher all of which influence their
perception of L2 and their language performance. Particular reference will be given to
project-based learning, as it is my belief that it is one of the best ways for motivating learners
with learning difficulties and disciplinary problems, and those who are more proficient in
their work and need further fulfilment in their studies, which is often difficult to attain
especially in mixed-ability classes. I would like to investigate in greater depth how project-
based learning serves to increase learner autonomy and independence, and how it not only
stimulates the learners' motivation, but also gives them the confidence and sense of self-
esteem they so badly need in their L2 learning.

When our school first became involved in international projects, I immediately began
incorporating various project activities into my teaching because I found them interesting, as
they were learner-centred and project-based enabling students to deal with course material
from a completely different angle, and my perception as a teacher was that they seemed to
impact positively on my students. The underlying issue of my research will, therefore, be to
investigate more empirically whether project-based learning and particularly international

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project activities have the potential to motivate learners at the lower secondary school level to
learn. The research will include an indepth analysis of some of the advantages and benefits as
well as problems and uncertainties encountered by both learners and teachers when
incorporating project-based learning in the English Language Teaching (ELT) classroom at
this level. Based on the views and opinions of the student and teacher respondents in my
survey I hope to have proven that such projects do have implications for the development and
maintenance of student motivation.

I consider this study important not only because it will provide insight into project-based
learning as a major technique underpinning motivation in L2 learning, but also help enhance
the use of international projects as a means of attaining this goal. Hopefully my suggestions
for further research will serve as a signpost to those teachers who are less enthusiastic about
incorporating project work and more precisely international project activities into their
teaching, and stimulate them to at least consider putting project work to the test.

1.2 The research questions

The main research question of my study - Do international project activities boost student
motivation in ELT at the lower secondary school level? - will be explored through the
following three sub-research questions:

1. Do teachers consider project-based learning a useful way of achieving student
motivation and communicative competence in ELT?

2. Do students perceive project work to be a valuable asset to their foreign language
learning?

3. Do students and/or teachers feel there are problems in using project work in ELT and
if so, how can they be met?

1.3 Structure of the thesis

The thesis is divided into five chapters. Chapter One presents an overview of what the study
entails, its significance, hypothesis and structure. Chapter Two reviews the literature on
motivation, its role in ELT, factors affecting it, with a particular focus on project-based
learning as a major technique underpinning motivation in L2 learning, as well as problems

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encountered by both students and teachers when incorporating it into the learning process.
Chapter Three describes the methodology used in conducting the research including the
participants involved, the methods used and the procedure of data collection. Chapter Four
analyses and discusses the data obtained from the survey. Chapter Five summarises the
findings from the data collected, links the key ideas to the research questions, provides a
conclusion regarding the hypothesis presented at the beginning of the dissertation, and offers
suggestions for further research.

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Chapter Two
Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

I begin the literature review with a short presentation of some of the many theories of
motivation which researchers have used in their attempt to clarify what they consider
stimulates or demotivates learners to learn, and then provide a more detailed explanation of
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. I then look at motivation from the perspective of the learner
followed by that of the teacher while paying particular attention to factors which help enhance
language learning as well as those which may hinder it or present obstacles for both learners
and teachers to overcome in their joint effort in making language learning a success. From
there I turn my attention to project-based learning and its importance for enhancing learner-
centredness and autonomy as well as dealing with differentiation in mixed-ability classes.
Finally I have a look at potential problems which may occur when using project work in ELT,
such as power relations and group processes, the question of authenticity and the language
problem, and propose possible solutions for dealing with them. Given my hypothesis that
project-based learning and in particular international project activities have the potential to
develop and maintain motivation, I also highlight certain advantages of incorporating
international project activities into the language learning process. The chapter concludes with
an encouraging look to the future and urges language practitioners to consider the advantages
of project-based learning as presented in the literature review, and to at least make an attempt
to incorporate it into their teaching.

2.2 Motivation

2.2.1 Theories of motivation

The importance of motivation in ELT is immense. It has been accepted by teachers and
researchers as one of the key factors that can influence 'the rate and success of foreign
language learning' (Wang 2008:30). In the words of Dörnyei (1998:117 in ibid:31),
motivation 'provides the primary impetus to initiate learning foreign language and later the
driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process'. The concept of

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motivation has intrigued researchers for many years, and as a result many theories have been
formulated to try and explain what motivation actually entails and the reasons behind what
makes students want or not want to learn.

The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (1995:929) provides the general meaning
of the verb to motivate as 'to make someone want to achieve something and make them
willing to work hard in order to do it', and motivation as 'eagerness and willingness to do
something without needing to be told or forced to do it'. Definitions from within ELT, while
including this basic concept, entail yet other elements involved in understanding what 'moves'
an individual 'to act', in this case to learn English (McDonough 2007:369) such as, 'instinct,
drive, arousal, need, […] personality traits like anxiety and need for achievement, […]
cognitive appraisals of success and failure, ability' and 'self-esteem' as well as 'the immense
social relevance of language learning worldwide' (Dörnyei 1994:274). Ellis (1994:715)
defines motivation as 'the effort which learners put into learning an L2 as a result of their need
or desire to learn it', while McDonough (2007:369) considers it to be 'a property of the learner'
as well as a 'dynamic', 'transitive concept' that 'changes over time' and is 'remarkably
complex'. The two Canadian psychologists, Gardner and Lambert, who 'initiated and inspired'
much of the research into 'the nature and role of motivation in the L2 learning process', 'were
particularly sensitive to the social dimension of L2 motivation' (Dörnyei 1994:273) as
expressed in their 'integrative' and 'instrumental' concept, where integrative motivation refers
to learning the language in order to take part in the culture of its people', and instrumental
motivation as 'learning the language for a career goal or other practical reason' (1972 in Zhou
2008:8). This concept is not only relevant to bilingual Canada, 'where language learning is a
featured social issue - at the crux of the relationship between the Anglophone and
Francophone communities', but extends far beyond, given the fact that 'the vast majority of
nations in the world are multicultural, and most of these […] multilingual', as well as the fact
that 'there are more bilinguals in the world than there are monolinguals' (Dörnyei 1994:274).
Skehan (1991in ibid:275) argues that 'the most pressing difficulty motivation researchers face
is that of "clarifying the orientation-context links that exist' because of the wide range of
potential differences in 'L1-L2 learning relationship[s]' that exist '(outside Canada!)', and
confirms that 'the exact nature of the social and pragmatic dimensions of L2 motivation' is
always dependent on who learns what languages where'. Even though Gardner's concept was
acknowledged to be fundamentally important, researchers were in the search for 'a more
pragmatic, education-centred approach to motivation' (ibid:273). According to Dörnyei

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(ibid:275) '[o]ne of the most general and well-known distinctions in motivation theories is that
between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation' as presented by Deci and Ryan (1985), which
attempts to clarify some of the factors influencing a student's inclination or disinclination for
learning.

2.2.2 Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation

Researchers, according to Wang (2008:30), agree that 'motivation is responsible for
determining human behaviour by energizing it and giving it direction'. Motivation can be
considered as coming from within oneself, better known as intrinsic motivation, which 'refers
to doing something because it is inherently interesting and enjoyable (Ryan and Deci
2000:55-56), where choice, decision-making and volition on the part of the learner play a
primary role, and where self-direction or 'flexibility' […] allows ones's attitudes to direct
action towards the effective achievement of one's aims' (Deci and Ryan 1985:6). Motivation
can also come from the outside, better known as extrinsic motivation, which may come in
many forms, such as 'threats […], deadlines […], directives […], and competition pressure'
that undermine intrinsic motivation because learners 'experience them as controllers of their
behavior' (Ryan and Deci 2000:59). In these circumstances the learners' 'ability to think and
reason on their own' is disregarded and does not allow them to 'develop self-determination or
independent thinking' (Ryan and Deci 1996:no pagination). Ryan and Deci add that 'in
situations where the students believe their perspectives are valid and their rights […] equal to
the person distributing the rewards or punishment, there is often the formation of "power-
relationships” with a high probability of subversion, conflict, and/or resentment' (ibid). Could
it also be, as Covington (1998:18) speculates that once the extrinsic motive such as the need
for recognition '- praise, applause, gold stars and grades […] is satisfied or the threat of failure
removed', there may no longer be any particular reason to continue learning? These and
similar circumstances seem to 'detract from true learning and focus students' attention on
performance per se, without regard for what is learned or its meaning to one's life' (ibid).

On the other hand, extrinsic motivation can 'enhance intrinsic motivation' and offer the learner
'a greater sense of autonomy' by allowing for 'choice and the opportunity for self-direction'
(ibid). Intrinsic motivation can be evoked 'when the learning activity and the learning
environment elicit motivation in the student', which can be achieved '[w]hen the goals and
rewards of the learning are meaningful to the learner'; '[w]hen the learning assists the learner

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in obtaining valued accomplishments' and '[w]hen the learning assists the learners in
integrating themselves with the world, with others, and promotes self-awareness' (Brandt
1995:no pagination). Where L2 learning is concerned it all depends, 'on how important the
learner considers the goal of L2 learning to be in terms of a valued personal outcome'
(Dörnyei 1994:276). Learners are often conscious of their competence in completing a
particular task, and if they recognize it as appropriate and its purpose meaningful and
important to them, then their motivation for completing it will rise (Zhou 2008:9).

However, because all school activities are not 'inherently interesting or enjoyable' for
students, teachers are faced with the challenge of finding new strategies 'to promote more
active and volitional (versus passive and controlling) forms of extrinsic motivation which will
gradually 'lead students to internalize the responsibility and sense of value for extrinsic goals',
make them their own and 'carry them out' 'without external pressure' thus fostering learning
and competence (Ryan and Deci 2000:55-60). '[O]ffering optimal challenges and effectance-
relevant feedback' as well as a feeling of belonging and respect can boost students'
'willingness to accept the proffered classroom values' and promote 'greater internalization of
school-related behavioral regulations' (ibid:64). The extent to which this can be accomplished
will, however, depend on the learners themselves and the behavioural attitudes that they have
towards L2 learning.

Even though language 'can be taught as a school subject', it is at the same time 'an integral
part of the individual's identity involved in almost all mental activities, and […] the most
important channel of social organisation embedded in the culture of the community where it
is used' (Dörnyei 1994:274). It is, in most cases, 'more complex than simply mastering new
information and knowledge', and 'involves various personality traits and social components'
(ibid). Bearing this in mind, it is, therefore, difficult if not impossible to discuss motivation in
L2 learning without considering the learner's 'individuality', 'the beliefs learners hold about
themselves' and their reasons for learning L2 (McDonough 2007:370).

2.2.3 Motivation from the perspective of the learner

There are many reasons which motivate people to learn languages. Based on an investigation
of young L2 adult learners in Hungary, Dörnyei (1994:275) identifies four such motives: '1)
interest in foreign languages, cultures, and people […]; 2) [the] desire to broaden ones view

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and avoid provincialism […]; 3) [the] desire for new stimuli and challenges […]' and finally
'the desire to integrate into a new community'. However, the extent to which learners'
individual beliefs about themselves influence their motivation in L2 learning is, without
question, a fundamental factor in determining their success or failure. Even though the
motives and conditions for effective language learning may be present, they will be of no
avail if, for example, 'the individual's self-appraisal of what he or she can or cannot do' is a
negative one, as this will 'affect how he or she strives for achievement' as well as his/her
'future goal expectancy' (ibid:276). Weiner, who believes that ‘[c]ausal attributions determine
affective reactions to success and failure’, identifies ability (or lack of it), effort (or
inadequate effort), the task at hand and luck as 'the most important factors affecting
attributions for achievement' (1980:362), where ability and effort are considered 'internal
causes since they presumably reflect inherent characteristics of the individual', and 'task
difficulty and luck […] 'external factors since both are beyond the individual's control'
(Covington 1998:58). Using this attribution theory Covington attempts to explain that
individuals' different explanations for their success or failure is 'the essence of individual
differences in achievement motivation' in that those 'motivated to approach success […]
attribute their failures to internal factors – chiefly to a lack of effort – and their successes to a
combination of high ability and effort', while 'failure-prone individuals […] take little credit
for their successes […] because they do [not] feel worthy of it, and blame themselves for
failure by reason of being stupid' (ibid:58-59). The 'learned helplessness' phenomenon
(Smiley and Dweck 1994 in ibid:67) or 'state of depression or loss of hope', as it has been
described (ibid) only adds to the learner's 'sense of despair' which they attribute largely to
their own 'incompetence' (ibid:68). Self-efficacy ('an individual's judgement of his or her
ability to perform a specific action'), self-confidence ('the belief that one has the ability to
produce results, accomplish goals or perform tasks competently'), as well as the individual's
need for achievement all contribute not only to achieving motivation in language learning, but
also to achieving proficiency in the target language (Dörnyei 1994:277). Those learners who
lack belief in self-efficacy and self-confidence, often 'feel lost in the language class', and need
'meaningful, achievable, and success-engendering language tasks' which will help them to
gradually develop these traits (ibid). This, however, takes time and perseverance from both
the learners and the teacher and sometimes may be very difficult to attain, one of the reasons
being that, as learners grow, their attitudes and behaviours change and with them their
reasons for learning.

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As language teachers we are aware that the better we know our students the easier and more
interesting our teaching will be. But how well do teachers really know their students?
Covington (1998:83) informs us that around the age of twelve 'the perceived importance of
effort wanes, and is replaced by the conviction that ability alone is sufficient for success'
which for many learners at this age 'becomes the limiting factor in achievement'. As a result
the 'work ethic' that was once so strong, 'declines' (ibid), which in turn demands more energy
and perseverance from the teacher in maintaining the same level of motivation in the ELT
classroom as before. Getting teenagers involved in learning and keeping them motivated can
be quite a challenge, because they constantly need some sort of 'driving force to sustain the
[…] learning process', which can be 'long and often tedious' (Dörnyei 1998:117). The
approval of significant individuals in the learner's life, such as the parents, older brothers and
sisters and the learner's peers as well as the teacher's attitude to the language and confidence
on the part of both teacher and learner are crucial contributors to the path that language
learning will take (Harmer 2001:52).

Another factor to consider is that learners may come from various ethnic backgrounds, child-
rearing practices and peer dynamics' (Covington 1998:51), and based on their life experiences
will view education and learning each from their own individual perspective. '[S]ocial
identity' – that is 'the sense of belonging to a particular social group, whether defined by
ethnicity, by language, or any other means' plays a significant role in language learning as it
also tends to be an emotional involvement, and mirrors the way in which learners see L2 as
well as their role in the L2 classroom (Mitchell and Myles2004:246). The results of Losey's
1995 classroom-based study of 'differences in student output across ethnicity and gender in a
mixed monoligual English and bilingual Spanish/English class clearly show the extent to
which unequal power relations in the society from which learners come can affect their
participation, failure and/or success in L2 learning (ibid). Losey found that '[i]n teacher-led,
English medium, whole-class discussions, the Anglo students dominated overwhelmingly'
with a similar rate of participation from the few Mexican American males in the class,
whereas the Mexican American women 'scarcely contributed at all' even though 'they
comprised almost half the class' (ibid). Surprisingly, however, when working in small groups
'whether with peers or with a tutor, these women talked freely, asking many work-related
questions, and jointly solving problems' (ibid). Losey (1995:655 in ibid) 'attributes the
women's silence in class – and hence, their restricted learning opportunity – to their powerless
position as a 'double minority', in terms of both ethnicity and gender'. The feeling of being

9

dominated by the Anglo students and Mexican American males not only mirrors their
'powerless position', but may also give them the feeling that they are being threatened when
'misunderstandings are too frequent', and so do not want to be the center of attention when
mistakes are being made (ibid:246-248). Because '[l]anguage is part of one's identity and is
used to convey this identity to others', the impact that foreign language learning has on the
social being of the learner is very significant, as 'it involves the adoption of new social and
cultural behaviours and ways of thinking' (Thanasoulas 2002: no pagination). If these new
ways of thinking and asserting oneself cannot be met, then as a result of the lack of self-
esteem and self-confidence in their struggle to master the target language, learners may
sometimes resort to 'resistance, that is, more or less complete withdrawal from [L2]
interaction and a re-assertion of [their] first language identity […] by switching to
monolingual first language use' (Mitchell and Myles 2004:248), or they may respond to whole
class interaction with 'silence' as did the Mexican American women in Losey's study (Losey
1995:635 in ibid:246). If the society in which learners live is reluctant to recognize or
completely 'neglects the foreign language, the learners may have no motivation to learn it' at
all (Zhou 2008:9) or may be demotivated from the very beginning and may not find it
necessary to even improve their interlanguage. Foreign language teaching within the United
Kingdom is a good example of the concerns brought about by 'the reluctance of the British to
learn a foreign language at all, and the declining level of achievement in this domain'
(Williams et al 2002:no pagination). Even though the United Kingdom is a multilingual
country, 'the public perception […] shaped and reflected by the media', is that 'of a
monolingual, monocultural society whose standardised English […] has proved so attractive
to outsiders across the world that Britons have no need to explore other languages'
(McLauchlan 2007:no pagination). With 'British media discourses remain[ing] stronger than
the voices of other bodies engaged with foreign languages and cultures (Coleman et al
2007:no pagination), it is not surprising the extent to which this negative attitude has
influenced secondary school learners in demotivating them 'to continue studying a foreign
language, once it is no longer compulsory, and to 'regard the learning of foreign languages as
difficult, boring, and […] of little practical use' (McLauchlan 2007:no pagination). This,
topped off by the government's 'removal of language from the core curriculum' for students
from 14 to 16 years of age has led to 'a dramatic fall in numbers of language learners'
(Coleman et al 2007:no pagiantion), which, according to Graddol, can have 'serious
consequences', '[a]s we move into an era where our future will need to be based on
multilingualism'(1997 in Williams et al 2002:no pagination). This is in itself a correct claim if

10

we consider that 'the number of people using English as their second language will grow from
235 million to around 465 million during the next 50 years' thus changing 'the balance
between L1 and L2 speakers, with L2 speakers eventually overtaking L1 speakers'
(Graddol 1999:62 in McKay 2002:13).

Finally, Klassen's 1991 ethnographic study in Toronto's Spanish-speaking community, as
reported by Auerbach (1993:17) [see Appendix 1], revealed some of the consequences
beginning-literate Spanish speakers faced in monoligual ESL (English as a second language)
classes due to the persistent feeling of incompetence and domination. The interviewees
reported 'a strong sense of exclusion', due to the complete preclusion from participation and
progress until some of them even dropped out of the course (ibid:18). This only added to their
marginalization in the outside world, as they were unable to enrole into higher level ESL
courses 'required for entry into job training programs which limited their employment
possiblities' (ibid). Instead of integrating these learners into the rest of the class, the teachers
isolated them from the other students, either because of their 'own sense of frustration at being
unable to communicate with them or because they felt they were 'being forced to reduce
lesson content to the most elementary childlike uses of language' (ibid), which illustrates how
important the teacher's role is in initiating and helping to sustain motivation throughout the
learning process and the power teachers have in influencing learning outcomes.

2.2.4 Motivation from the perspective of the teacher

Being the person learners usually look up to and often imitate, the teacher has great
influencial power as far as motivation is concerned. There is no doubt that teachers must be
fully aware of the language content if they are to teach it effectively or else they will not be
able to 'successfully interpret coursebook syllabuses and materials' or 'adapt these to the
specific needs of the learners' or deal with learners' errors and other queries (Thornbury
1997:xii). However, since learning a L2 is also 'influenced by cultural and attitudinal factors'
(ibid:x), being aware of the kind of learners one is dealing with, and knowing which approach
will appropriately motivate each group is very significant for their understanding of the
language content and subsequent language performance. The teacher's role remains both
'central, and difficult' as it involves 'providing a supportive and challenging learning
environment […] facilitating the development of the learners' own motivational thinking' and
most importantly 'not doing anything to de-motivate them' (McDonough 2007:370).

11

By using the right strategies and appropriate teaching materials teachers can trigger the
learners' 'schematic knowledge' which they bring to a given text and which influences how
they will process it (Alptekin 1993:136). Material based on local or international issues with
which learners can identify will arouse their interest and stimulate their desire to know more
(Wang 2008:32), which will in turn enable them to remember grammatical structures, phrases
and lexical items faster and easier. If the teacher is to succeed in motivating learners, then,
'relevance has to be the red thread permeating activities' (Chambers 1999:37), or in other
words, the teacher has to try to incorporate the learners' goals and topics of interest into the
curriculum (Thanasoulas 2002:no pagination). On the contrary, teaching material that is
culturally bound will create a void between the world of the writer and that of the learner as
they will have little or nothing in common causing the learner to lose interest and gradually
become demotivated, which will, no doubt, encumber the learning process. Using material
that is 'too difficult' for learners to handle, 'having activities that are too long without any
motivational variation, and giving exams that are too demanding' (Corria 1999:17-18 cited in
Wang 2008:32), are dangers that the teacher must be careful to avoid so as not to make the
material and accompanying tasks 'a time-consuming, laborious and frustrating experience'
(Alptekin 1993:137). Those learners with insufficient linguistic ability will 'also need a large
amount of contextual support' before getting any task done since many of the words they will
be decoding will either be unknown to them or accessed slowly (Paran 1996:29). An
interesting observation made by Wang (1996:37) is that '[s]uccess or lack of success plays a
vital role in the motivational drive of a student' and that '[b]oth complete failure and complete
success may be demotivating'. It is very important for teachers to 'select activities which will
challenge the students at the proper level', that are not 'beyond' or 'below' their abilities (Wang
2008:33), which has proven to be a challenging task especially in mixed-ability classes.

By providing a relaxed atmosphere in the ELT classroom teachers can contribute to making
learners feel good about themselves. 'Allowing learners to bring their own knowledge and
perspectives into the learning process' (Nunan (1999 in ibid); letting them express their
feelings and opinions to the class; making an effort to understand them, their learning styles
and language level, and accepting them for what they are all contribute to being
acknowledged by their peers and the teacher, and give them the 'confidence in their ability to
succeed' (ibid). Giving learners the opportunity to use and practise the target language in
order to 'communicate their own experiences about their lives […] and talk about topics

12

which they are interested in and like' strengthens their desire to learn and improve their
interlanguage, even if this means simply using English for practical reasons, such as 'ask[ing]
about something they do not know or […] want to know' (ibid:32-33). Often enough 'intrinsic
motivation will spring from an interest in what is being communicated by the language'
(ibid:33). It should be noted, however, that excessive correction of errors on the part of the
teacher can have a devastating effect on learners as they tend to become passive in order to
avoid making them. Teachers should practise tolerance when learners are trying to express
their thoughts and perhaps correct errors only when essential to the understanding of the main
idea being conveyed. Learners need 'both ample opportunities to learn and steady
encouragement and support in their learning efforts' which only 'a safe classroom climate can
give them, a place where they feel 'they do not run the risk of being ridiculed' (Thanasoulas
2002:no pagination). Commending learners on a regular basis for their contribution to the
lesson, even when minimal, and giving words of encouragement can reduce classroom
anxiety and make learning less stressful (ibid).

Another way of giving learners initiative is by frequently incorporating project-based
learning activities into lessons, which will enable them 'to use the language effectively for
their real communicative needs, rather than simply […] provid[ing] [them] with the
knowledge about the grammar system' of the target language (Hiep 2007:196).

2.3 Project-based learning

I am not denying the importance of grammar instruction for the development and
restructuring of the learners' interlanguage, and I fully agree with Thornbury (1997:xiii-xiv)
that there is a need 'for grammatical 'conscious raising' techniques […] that focus the learner's
attention on salient features and recurring patterns in language data' which help in noticing
similar features in real live contexts (ibid). After all 'one of the goals of language instruction
is', as he puts it, that [...] learners move in the direction of achieving […] communicative
competence' that is 'the knowledge of what constitutes effective language behaviour in
relation to one's communicative objectives' balanced by knowing 'what is 'correct'' or
'linguistic competence' (ibid). However, besides having sufficient language awareness to be
able to 'alert the learner[s] to the features of the language to be 'noticed' (ibid), teachers should
also give them as many opportunities as possible to experience and use the knowledge
obtained in grammar instruction. Cook (1989:41) points to 'the disturbing sensation' faced by

13

all L2 learners 'of understanding every word, […] but somehow missing the point', and adds
that '[i]n production, learners need to choose the words which most suitably realize their
intention, and this does not always entail the most closely related form'. For learners to be
able to deviate the meanings of words, to use elipses and to understand the pragmatic meaning
behind an utterance, they need exposure to L2, which can be created in the ELT classroom
through project-based learning activities. Enhancing learner-centredness and autonomy,
dealing with differentiation in mixed-ability classes, and fostering peer interaction are some of
the priorities of project-based learning, which not only help boost the learners' will and desire
to actively participate in the language learning process, but motivate them to use L2 to its
fullest potential.

2.3.1 Project work for enhancing learner-centredness and autonomy

According to Fried-Booth (2002:5), project work is about learners developing 'confidence in
using English in the real world', taking 'the experience of the classroom out into the world and
provid[ing] an opportunity for informal learning' where they can work 'on a topic of interest to
them' and use 'language for a specific purpose, with a particular aim in mind' while at the
same time putting to use what they have learnt. It is, as Fried-Booth (ibid:6) states, one of the
ways of 'equip[ping] the learner to assume […] independence' or in other words, it enhances
learner autonomy. But what exactly is learner autonomy? Dam (1990 in Thanasoulas 2000:no
pagination) holds that 'someone qualifies as an autonomous learner when he independently
chooses aims and purposes and sets goals; chooses materials, methods and tasks; exercises
choice and purpose in organising and carrying out the chosen tasks; and chooses criteria for
evaluation'. Generally speaking, '[l]earners […]are expected to assume greater responsibility
for, and take charge of, their own learning' (ibid). This, however, does not mean that 'the
teacher becomes redundant, abdicating his/her control over what is transpiring in the language
learning process' (ibid), which some proponents of traditional grammar instruction such as
writer and trainer, Robert O'Neill, seem to believe. He argues that by 'letting students do the
learning on their own with teachers only intervening when and if needed, might amount to a
form of neglect' and that '[i]t could be tantamount to an abdication by the teacher of the
knowledge-giving role' (O'Neill 1994 in Harmer 2001:57). Contrary to this affirmation,
Thanasoulas (2000:no pagination) considers it 'nothing short of ludicrous to assert that
learners come into the learning situation with the knowledge and skills to plan, monitor, and
evaluate their learning, or to make decisions on content or objectives', and asserts that

14

'autonomous learning is by no means 'teacherless learning'', but that teachers are needed to
'adapt resources, materials, and methods to the learners' needs', and give them a ''helping
hand'' on their way to autonomy. Even though it is often difficult for teachers to change from
being the 'purveyor of information to counsellor and manager of learning resources' or 'to let
learners solve problems for themselves' (ibid), the teacher and learner can work together to
promote and foster autonomy 'by creating a friendly atmosphere characterised by 'low threat,
unconditional positive regard, honest and open feedback, respect for the ideas and opinions of
others, approval of self-improvement as a goal,' and 'collaboration rather than competition'
(Candy 1991: 337 in ibid), which is exactly what project work aims to achieve.

Project work is learner-centred with learners working together 'driven by the need to create an
end-product', and what makes this so 'worthwhile', is 'the route to achieving this end product'
(Fried-Booth 2002:6). The product is, of course, relevant to the goals 'set by outsiders (i.e,
teachers or the curriculum)', but which will also be defined and carried out based on the
group's own 'personal criteria' (Thanasoulas 2002:no pagination). Project work is 'a personal
experience', because learners 'are writing about their own lives […] their dreams and
fantasies, their own research into topics that interest them' and will undoubtedly 'put a lot of
effort into getting it right' (Hutchinson 1991:11). By giving learners the opportunity to work
on a task 'which they have defined for themselves' will develop their confidence and
independence (Fried-Booth 2002:6), and they will value it more because 'their free choice and
autonomy' have been maximised (Good and Brophy 1994:228 in Thanasoulas 2002:no
pagination). This will gradually lead to self-motivation, which, as Ushioda (1997:41 in ibid)
claims, is 'a question of thinking effectively and meaningfully about learning experience and
learning goals' as well as 'a question of applying positive thought patterns and belief structures
so as to optimise and sustain one's involvement in learning'.

Even though project work and the communicative approach have contributed to getting the
learner more involved in language learning, they have often come under attack by those who
believe that communicative language teaching favours native-speaker teachers over non-
native speaker teachers, because it is said to demand 'a relatively uncontrolled range of
language use on the part of the student' which, in turn, will expect the teacher to 'respond to
any and every language problem which may come up' (Harmer 2001:86). According to Tudor,
however, it is more a matter of being mature, intuitive and open to the learners' input and have
a greater tolerance of uncertainty, qualities, which are 'in marked contrast to more traditional

15

teacher behaviour', but which 'are precisely those characteristics most people would expect of
any teacher, traditional or modern, who has their learners' best interests at heart' (1993 in
ibid:57). Judging by the increasing interest that teachers from different countries have shown
in developing project ideas to suit their own teaching situation, and having them published in
collections such as Project Work by Fried-Booth (2002), shows that project work can be
applied in learning situations worldwide, each unique and diverse in its approach (Fried-
Booth 2002:5). How and when it is to be incorporated into lessons all depends on when the
teacher considers it appropriate and the objectives they want to achieve with a particular
group of learners.

2.3.2 Project work for dealing with differentiation in mixed-ability classes

Even though the teacher is no longer the dominating figure in the learner-centred approach, it
still remains their obligation to recognize and develop the students' potential and distinctive
qualities (Han 1979 in Zhenhui :no date/pagination), and find a balance to suit the level of
knowledge of every learner in the class, and how they can contribute to the activities
undertaken. For teaching to be a success in classes with learners of different abilities and
proficiencies teachers must recognize that they are teaching a group of individuals and not 'a
single student with 25 faces', that some are quicker than others and more confident while
others are shy and slow (Pearsonlongman, no date/pagination). Learners 'are motivated in
different ways and to different degrees' (Thanasoulas 2002:no pagination). Some may like
'doing grammar and memorising' while 'others want to speak and role-play' or may 'prefer
reading and writing, while avoiding speaking' (ibid). By incorporating project work into the
lesson, allows learners to work 'autonomously', with the teacher monitoring and offering extra
help and guidance whenever necessary (ELT: no date/pagination). Wells (1999:333 in
Mitchell and Myles 2004:214) claims that 'whenever people collaborate in an activity, each
can assist the others, and each can learn from the contributions of the others'. Groups may
consist of learners 'of widely differing levels', giving all the participants within the group,
including slower learners, the opportunity to exchange ideas and incorporate preferred
learning strategies in confronting a particular task, or of stronger learners 'where the
difference is not too extreme' in which case the autonomous work might be incoroporated
more frequently into lessons (ELT no date/pagination). 'One of the great benefits of project
work' is its 'adaptability', meaning that 'the same project task' can be done 'by students at
different levels', ie. prepared in a more straight forward way for younger or slower learners or

16

involving a wider range of different structures at the intermediate level (Hutchinson 1991:4).
Project work can also be done 'on almost any topic […] factual […] or fantastic' and 'help to
develop the full range of the learners' capabilities' (ibid:6), which, in turn, can create a highly
motivated atmosphere allowing individuals, even those who are 'less linguistically gifted', to
contribute in ways which will 'reflect their different talents and creativity' (Fried-Booth
2002:6), something desperately needed in mixed-ability classes. A learner's talent as an artist,
for example, can contribute to the group's end product and give him/her 'the self-esteem,
which would otherwise be unlikely in a more conventional language lesson' (ibid). '[E]ven the
most reluctant, skeptical learner is susceptible to peer group enthusiasm and derives benefit
from taking part in a project' (ibid:7). Slower learners and those with disciplinary problems
seem to adapt to peer work very well, as they have less of a chance of being intimidated by
the teacher and surprisingly often show a creative side to their otherwise indifferent
behaviour. They can 'work at their own pace and level' and 'achieve something that they can
take pride in, perhaps compensating for their lower language level by using more photos and
drawings' in their work (Hutchinson 1991:11). Project work also supports the 'cross-
curricular' approach to learning, which gives learners 'the opportunity to use the knowledge
they gain in other subjects in the English class' (ibid:13), thus giving learners, who are better
in other subject areas, the opportunity to use this knowledge as a resource in the language
project being done. Some interesting examples of these types of projects from Hutchinson's
book, Introduction to Project Work (1991), can be found in Appendix 2.

But regardless of the success that project-based learning has had in schools all over the world,
is not to say that it is without problems. There have been some cases where the use of project
work has posed problems for both teachers and learners, and to which I now turn.

2.4 Coping with problems in using project work in ELT

2.4.1 Power relations and group processes

Through the peer interaction that begins to develop during project work, as seen in the
previous section, with learners helping, and supporting one another, working together and
collaborating around project activities, they become 'active constructors of their own learning
environment, which they shape through their choice of goals and operations' (Ohta 2001 in

17

Mitchell and Myles 2004:221). Sometimes, however, the collaboration within a group of
learners may be hindered due to misconceptions and/or misunderstandings among the group
members. The success or failure of learner-centred learning depends to a great extent on
factors which 'promote group cohesiveness' such as 'the time spent together and shared group
history, learning about each other, interaction, intergroup competition' as well as 'the active
presence of the leader' (Ehrman and Dörnyei 1998:142), not to mention '[t]eacher behaviour,
which has the power to influence not only 'the rapport with the students', but can also ''prevail
upon'' and/or ''attract'' students to engage in tasks' (Thanasoulas 2002:no pagination). By
obtaining 'mutual trust and respect with the learners, by means of talking to them on a
personal level' and 'impart[ing] a sense of commitment to, and interest in the subject matter'
both 'verbally' and 'non-verbally', the teacher can cue the learners as to the way they should
behave (ibid). The teacher is a necessary component of the learning process, one who sets the
classroom climate by offering additional help in getting the learners oriented in their groups,
in getting their objectives straight and in directing them to the resources they will need in
getting their work done. If, however, teachers cannot 'organise [or] manage the classroom as
an effective learning environment, the atmosphere will no doubt become very 'chaotic', a
place where 'motivation is unlikely to develop' and where, as a result of being left to
themselves, learners can become 'anxious' or even 'alienated' (ibid), which will undoubtedly
further negatively influence the work they are trying to create in their groups. There are four
stages or 'group processes' that, according to Tuckman (1969, quoted in Argyle 1969, cited in
Thanasoulas 2002:no pagination) almost all groups go through from their formation onwards
that have 'important implications for the study of the classroom and the use of group activities
during teaching' (ibid).

In normal conditions when a group is initially formed, participants are still dependent on the
teacher, and experience anxiety and uncertainty in their search for acceptable behaviour,
which is soon replaced, in the second stage, by a rebelious attitude against the leader and a
resistance to the 'role relations' within the group (ibid). Once cohesion and a sense of co-
operation begin to develop by stage three, the participants resolve their problems and by stage
four begin attending to their assignment (ibid). Problems arise when group members
experience unresolved issues and if these misunderstandings persist, or if the teacher neglects
to intervene in group activities that have somehow come to a standstill due to the lack of
teacher input, as observed by O'Neill (1991). As a result the group can suffer negative
implications not only for the end product, but also for the learners' subsequent motivation

18

(ibid). Daniels (1994 in Thanasoulas 2002:no pagination) points out that '[i]n reality, this
process may go on forever' due to 'student lethargy and underachievement norms in the
classroom' which can hinder 'effective teaching and learning'. In order to avoid such negative
outcomes Thanasoulas suggests that 'group norms […] should be discussed and adopted by
members, in order to be constructive and long-lasting', and '[i]f a norm mandated by a teacher
fails to be accepted as proper by the majority of class (or group) members, it [should] not
become a group norm' (ibid, italics and brackets added). If learners are to be considered as
'active constructors of their own learning environment, (Ohta 2001 in Mitchell and Myles
2004:221), then they must also have a voice in the planning and implementation of the group
goal. On the other hand if the unresolved issues arise due to the teacher's complete neglect in
providing the input needed, as in the case presented by O'Neill (1991: 295) of six Japanese
businessmen, whose discussion in pair work amounted to nothing but 'confusion' as they tried
to decifer the meaning of the instructions without any input what-so-ever from the teacher,
then the outcome is also bound to be unsuccessful as are any follow-up activities, or may take
longer to accomplish.

Fried-Booth (1982:100-101) asserts that 'the group dynamics of the entire working situation
need to be sufficiently positive over the time period to achieve the end-product', and urges
teachers to see to it that the activity 'operates within the students' language learning capacity,
[…] that the accompanying language development has a direct bearing on the need to attain
language objectives', that it 'satisf[ies] the students' perception of what is relevant and likely to
be of use and interest', and that it has the 'flexibility for students to be creative and innovative
as [it] proceeds', since '[a] tangible end-product within reach and produced by the individual
and the team is the strongest possible motivating factor'. All this can be made possible with
the help of the teacher, who, as the 'co-ordinator and instigator', has the 'commitment and
leadership' needed, to help the students 'feel willing to make the sestained effort' in getting
their work done (ibid). Teachers should encourage learners 'to be proud of themselves', 'to
evaluate themselves in a positive light' and 'take credit for their advances'(Thanasoulas
2002:no pagination). By 'promoting attributions to effort rather than to ability', 'providing
motivational feedback' and 'increasing learner satisfaction and the question of rewards and
grades', while at the same time taking care not to make grades the only criterion 'for judging
overall success and failure''(Dörnyei 2001:134 in ibid), teachers can help foster positive
learning behaviour and diminish the students' feeling of underachievement. Unfortunately,

19

there may be situations where these objectives may prove difficult to achieve due to the lack
of relevancy.

2.4.2 The question of authenticity

'A foreign language can often seem a remote and unreal thing' for learners if they '[do not] see
[it] as relevant to their own lives' (Hutchinson 1991:11). This seems to be the case with
language learners in Vietnam, for example, where the 'socio-cultural, political, and physical
conditions […] markedly differ' from those in the Western World, where the learners' purpose
for learning English is to be able 'to conduct their present and future life in communication
with native and other competent English speakers' (Hiep 2007:195). Hiep argues that because
the Vietnamese English language students 'share the same mother tongue' they 'do not have
the immediate need to use English in the classroom' or outside it, and '[t]he principle of doing
tasks in the classroom which are applicable to the world outside […] is thus questioned', as is
questioned the 'authentic material' with which they have to work (ibid:195-196). Even though
researchers like Kramsch and Sullivan (1996 in ibid:196) insist that 'it can be problematic to
take a set of teaching methods developed in one part of the world and use it in another part', it
should be noted that there may be other causes to this problem, such as 'traditional
examinations, large class sizes […] students' low motivation […] and […] teachers' limited
expertise in creating communicative activities like group work' (ibid:200), causes which can
be found in many other parts of the world, but which need to be confronted if they are to give
project-based learning a chance to succeed at all. However, 'to decide a priori that [a]
teaching approach is inappropriate in a certain context, as Larsen-Freeman (2000:67 in
ibid:196) argues, 'is to ignore developments in language teaching', which 'might lead to the
de-skilling of teachers' altogether. Perhaps it is not a matter of rejecting 'the methodology
itself', as suggested by Harmer (2003:292 in ibid:200), but a question of how 'to amend[ ] and
adapt[ ]' communicative ideas 'to fit the needs of the students who come into contact with
them'. These teachers should be aware that if learners 'are to become real language users, they
must learn that 'English, as an international language, should not be [used] just for talking
about the ways of the English-speaking world', but should also be 'a means of telling the
world about [their] own culture', and that one of the ways of helping 'to bridge this relevance
gap' is through project work (Hutchinson 1991:11-12). By bringing the learners' schematic
knowledge to the surface (Alptekin 1993:136), incorporating it into the existing course
material and expanding it further within their own sphere through project work, makes

20

learning more relevant to the learners because they become the focal point of the learning
process.

With the growing use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and access to
the Internet, even though still 'accessible to only a tiny minority of the world's citizens'
(Trotman 2000:no pagination), communicative language teaching and project work are slowly
being given a new dimension. By working with peers in other institutions all over the world
learners have the opportunity to expand on existing course material and create projects of
their own . Using ICT tools such as e-mail, video conferencing and skype, projects can be
planned and carried out between groups of learners from different countries, giving them the
opportunity to use English as 'a bridge enabling two cultures to communicate with each other'
(Hutchinson 1991:12). With the growing knowledge of ICT that learners possess now-a-days,
they are able to create joint web sites and put their projects onto these web sites for the world
to see. Learners can also search the Internet for information and pictures pertaining to their
assigned projects, learn to use resources available on the Internet, such as online dictionaries,
and by using cameras they can even 'observe or take part in each others' lessons in real time'
(Trotman 2000:no pagination). Their use of language as they 'negotiate plans, analyse and
discuss information and ideas is determined by genuine communicative needs' (Hedge
1993:276-277). Unfortunately some experts consider the language of peer interaction merely
'junky input' and stand firm in their belief that learner-centred learning is concerned only
with getting the meaning across even though the language used may be 'aberrant' (O'Neill
1991:303).

2.4.3 The language question

There is no doubt that 'a vital ingredient in learning any language is […] exposure to it
(Harmer 2001:66), and, according to Krashen (1985 in ibid), 'the best kind of language that
students could be exposed to', is ''comprehensive input', that is language which students
understand the meaning of, but which is nevertheless slightly above their own production
level'. Harmer (ibid) ascerts that the person who can provide learners with 'language which
has been 'roughly tuned' to be comprehensible to them'; who 'can react appropriately […] in a
way that a coursebook […] cannot', and who knows how to talk at 'just the right level' for
them to understand if not every word, then at least the general 'meaning of what is being said',
is the teacher. The teacher's use of language is undoubtedly important, and by 'use of

21

language' does not only refer to 'the choice and appropriateness of structure and vocabulary',
as O'Neill (1991:302) clarifies, but also to 'the way teachers use their voices and bodies to
give an extra, affective dimension to the words they speak'. O'Neill (ibid:303), however,
seems to believe that in learner-centred lessons these skills are 'ignored or even decried', and
that because 'even in the most skilfully organized group activities, the teacher cannot monitor
more than a small percentage of what any individual student actually says', all that learners
are left with is peer interaction or 'junky input', to use his expression. One thing that O'Neill is
forgetting, however, is that it is the learners who need to practice L2 not the teacher, and that
if teachers talk too much, learners are 'denied their own chance to practise' the target language
(Harmer 2001:66). By giving learners a chance to express themselves in L2 and by supplying
them from time to time with a translation of what they cannot yet say, or in Thornbury's
words, by 'scaffold[ing] learners' production of language' (2001 in Ferrer, no date:3), they are
given 'the opportunity to notice how their intended meaning is realised in the target language',
which helps restructure their interlanguage and develops their communicative competence
(ibid:5). If the teacher is not available for guidance at any particular moment, learners can
scaffold one another within the group, as in the example cited by Donato, of three adult
English first language learners of French collaborating to construct the past compound tense
of the reflexive verb se souvenir, 'to remember':

A1 Speaker 1 …and then I'll say…tu as souvenu notre anniversaire de
mariage…or should I say mon anniversaire?
A2 Speaker 2 Tu as …
A3 Speaker 3 Tu as …
A4 Speaker 1 Tu as souvenu …'you remembered'
A5 Speaker 3 Yea, but isn't that reflexive? Tu t'as …
A6 Speaker 1 Ah, tu t'as souvenu
A7 Speaker 2 Oh, it's tu es
A8 Speaker 1 Tu es
A9 Speaker 3 tu es, tu es, tu …
A10 Speaker 1 T'es, tu t'es
A11 Speaker 3 tu t'es
A12 Speaker 1 Tu t'es souvenu
(Donato 1994:44 in Mitchell and Myles 2004:216)
Donato makes the point that even though no one within the group has 'the ability to produce
this complex form without help', it is 'through their successive individual contributions' and
using their L1 as a scaffold that 'the verb form is collectively reshaped', which confirms that
peer scaffolding can result in linguistic development within the individual' (ibid). The

22

question that probably comes to mind here is just how important a role should the learners' L1
play in peer interaction?

To impede learners from using their L1 completely in the language classroom, 'implies', as
Phillipson puts it, 'the rejection of the experiences of other languages, meaning the exclusion
of the child's most intense existential experience' (1992:189), which, according to Auerbach
(1993:16) 'may impede language acquisition precisely because it mirrors disempowering
relations'. Because 'the thinking, feeling, and artistic life of a person is very much rooted in
their mother tongue' (Piasecka 1988:97), it becomes the driving force in learning to speak and
use a new language. That is why learners should not be denied 'the right to draw on their
language resources and strengths' however minimal their L1 literacy may be (Auerbach
1993:22). It is also a known fact that learners are very dependent on their L1 especially at the
beginning stage of L2 learning, and that even though 'teachers try to keep the two languages
separate, […] learners in their own minds keep the two in contact' (Widdowson 2003:150).
Why should learners 'relinquish their mother tongue personality' when they can use it to their
advantage as 'a resource' allowing for 'learner centred curriculum development' (Gray
2009:9), where L2 becomes 'an extension or alternative realization of what the learner already
knows' (Widdowson 1979:111). This allows for 'language and culture shock to be alleviated',
'validates the learners' lived experiences' and 'supports a gradual developmental process in
which, use of the L1 drops off naturally as it becomes less necessary' (Auerbach (1993:19-
20).

While working on their projects learners will automatically begin interacting in both L1 and
L2, because it is natural for them to be 'constantly referring to, and making comparisons with
their L1' (Thornbury personal communication 2000 in Gray 2009:9), but which should not
cause too great a concern for the teacher, as they are working towards an L2 end product.
There will, in fact, be a lot of 'realistic translation work' going on, as '[a] lot of the source
material […] (leaflets, maps, interviews, texts from reference books, etc.) will be in [L1]'
(Hutchinson 1991:15) or on the Internet in both English and L1. It will also be difficult to
'anticipate all the language the learners will need', especially when working in collaboration
with learners from other countries, and in addition they will also be 'develop[ing] the skills of
looking for words they do not know or alternative ways of expressing what they want to say'
(ibid:17). Believe it or not, even 'grammar […] will appear more relevant because the students
know they will need these things for their project work' (ibid:15) and/or interaction with their

23

foreign peers. However, Hutchinson advises against assessing a project only on the basis of
linguistic accuracy, and suggests giving credit to its 'overall impact' (ibid:18) because by
'encourag[ing] a focus on fluency', as project work undoubtedly does, 'errors of accuracy are
bound to occur' (ibid:8), and by drawing attention to things that are wrong over those that are
good will only add to the learners' demotivation (ibid:18). Let us not forget that 'there is more
to language learning and education than just accuracy', and since any project is 'only part of
the total amount of work within a language course', why should it become 'a hostage to
accuracy in oriented assessment systems' (ibid)? As for those teachers who critisize project-
based learning simply because of their own fear of not being able to cope with the wide range
of language that will supposedly arise on the part of the learners (Thonosaulas 2002:no
pagination), let them rest assured that because English has become 'the means of
communication among people from different first language backgrounds, across
linguacultural boundaries […] it functions as a global lingua franca' or international language,
and as such is 'being shaped at least as much by its nonnative speakers as by its native
speakers' (Seidlhofer 2005:339), and the desire to understand and be understood is stronger
than to only sound native-like.

2.5 Conclusion

It is very difficult to come to any final conclusions regarding the ideal way to teach, because
of the many factors involved in motivating learners to learn. O'Neill (1991:302-303) tells us
that 'even the best teachers cannot really know what works or does not work for students', and
suggests that '[a]ll they can do is sharpen their intuitions and instincts, and try out various new
ideas' while not abandoning the things that seemed to work well in the past. Those teachers,
on the other hand, who firmly believe that only 'by sticking to the language materials and
trying to discipline their refractory students, they will manage to create a classroom
environment that will be conducive to learning', err, because they 'lose sight of the fact that,
unless they accept their students' personalities and work on those minute details that constitute
their social and psychological make-up, they will fail to motivate them' (Thanasoulas 2002:no
pagination). Garcés (1998-99:31-32) makes the point that 'the development of any foreign
language teaching […] program involves dealing with 'real teachers', 'real students', 'real data',
and coping with 'real circumstances', and that 'the more closely a second language teaching
program is based on the specific needs of the students, the more successful and effective the
course will be'. I am not claiming that project-based learning is the only solution to achieving

24

and maintaining motivation in ELT, but I do believe it provides an opportunity for the learner
'to develop creativity, imagination, enquiry, and self-expression' (Hutchinson 1991:18), and
because it links language content to the learners' life experiences, it helps make pedagogy
'context-sensitive' and 'location-specific' as it is 'based on a true understanding of local
linguistic, social, cultural, and [even] political particularities’ (Kumaravadivelu 2006:69) all
of which can, in turn, help foster and enhance motivation to learners of all ages.

25

Chapter Three
The Research Design

3.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the methodology used in conducting my research including a
description of the participants involved, the research site, the format and content of the
questionnaire and interviews and the procedure used for collecting the data.

3.2 The participants and research site

In my research I included 35 students ranging from 13-16 years of age, who were active
participants in international project activities for at least four years at the primary – lower
secondary school in which I teach. At the time this survey took place 19 of the respondents
still attended classes at the lower secondary school level while 16 of them already attended
secondary school, but nevertheless played an active role in the above-mentioned projects.
Three students from the group were chosen to take part in a short interview and will be
referred to as Student A, Student B and Student C.

In addition to the students I also included three colleagues who were involved in international
projects at our school for many years, and whose expertise in this area enabled them to
competently evaluate the impact these projects have on learner motivation and especially on
motivation in L2 learning. The teacher respondents included:

- Teacher A: the school computer teacher, female, aged 32, with a bachelor's degree in
Mathematics and Computer Science. Her involvement in international projects included
preparing and carrying out video conferences with students from different countries, and
preparing websites in collaboration with students for their international projects using ICT
tools.

- Teacher B: the school librarian, female, aged 47, with a bachelor's degree in Librarianship

26

and History. As co-organizer and co-ordinator of international projects at our school since
1999 she has succeeded in motivating many students to work on projects including those with
disciplinary problems.

- Teacher C: English Language assistant, female, Australian, aged 50, with a bachelor's
degree in Commerce and Economics obtained in Australia. She was a language assistant at
our school for three years, where she assisted English teachers during regular lessons and led
project workshops.

For the most part the survey was carried out at a given time on the premises of the primary –
lower secondary school in which I teach in compliance with the headteacher of our institution
and the chosen student/teacher respondents themselves. Even though the sixteen secondary
school students were initially invited to take part in the survey on the school premises, they
participated by e-mail, due to their variable schedules at the various secondary schools, which
made it impossible for all of them to be present at our institution at the same time. The school
librarian and school computer teacher took part in the research on the school premises at a
time and day that was convenient for each of them. The foreign language assistant was
interviewed through the Internet using Skype as she was no longer employed at our school
during the time of the research.

The purpose of the research was explained to all the participants before the actual survey took
place and the survey was conducted on a voluntary basis. The participants were guaranteed
that their identities would remain anonymous and their replies confidential and would only be
used for the purposes of this research. They were informed that they could withdraw from
participation if they felt in any way uncomfortable or intimidated by the contents of the
survey. They were also assured feedback concerning the outcomes of the research.

3.3 The research methods

3.3.1 The questionnaire

The questionnaire, which was prepared only for the students, was anonymous to allow for
honesty in the answers. After obtaining written permission from the school's headteacher for
the execution of my intended survey [see Appendix 3], I first conducted a pilot survey with

27

three reliable students chosen from different classes who had a good command of English, to
verify that there was no ambiguity in the understanding of the questionnaire, and to suggest
any improvements that would help make it more 'user-friendly' (Wallace 1998:139). They
found it quite comprehensible and had no particular comments to make regarding its overall
structure. I then administered the actual questionnaire to the lower secondary school students
myself to make sure that if any queries came up on their part regarding the understanding of
the questions, they would be answered immediately. The questionnaire sent by e-mail to the
student respondents attending secondary school was accompanied by detailed instructions and
my telephone number in case any queries came up regarding the understanding of the
questions.

Given the fact that the student respondents in my survey were 13-16 years of age with a
limited knowledge of English, the questionnaire, which was written only in English, contained
more closed questions with only a few containing a combination of both closed and open
elements in order to make it easier for the students to answer them without any major
misunderstandings. The format of my questions included quite a few YES/NO responses,
ranking, circling, ticking and four open-ended responses. [See actual questionnaire in
Appendix 4]. Of the entire sixteen questions asked, only the first one is a general question
regarding the age when the respondents first started learning English. Questions 2 to 8 are
connected to motivation in learning English and focus on how it has changed through the
years if at all, as well as the factors influencing the change itself. Questions 9 to 11, 13 and 14
deal with group work, its effect on motivation and problems encountered when using it.
Questions 12, 15 and 16 involve the students' views on international project activities. I
allowed the students to write their answers to the open questions in L1 if they felt they could
express their thoughts better that way.

3.3.2 The interviews

I prepared two different interviews – one for the teacher participants and one for the three
students chosen from among the student respondents. Even though most interviews are 'one-
to-one', as Wallace (ibid:149) informs us, his suggestion of having a group interview in the
form of a 'structured discussion' using the 'brainstorming approach' was very useful in the
interview I had with the three students. As I did not want their views and opinions to be
affected by my point of view, as that might 'affect the nature of the data collected' (Gray

28

2004:23), the interview was conducted in the form of a discussion among the respondents
with very little intervention from me. The atmosphere was relaxed and casual, which boosted
their morale and encouraged them to talk and give their opinions more freely. Their group
interview was recorded on the computer relevant parts of which were transcribed to be used in
this research. By incorporating both techniques in my survey, I was able to 'elicit basic factual
data' from the questionnaire, and 'follow up on [students'] attitudes and experiences' through
the interview (Wallace 1998:151). The five interview questions [see student interview
questions in Appendix 5] dealt with their opinions regarding teacher talking time and the
importance of their own particpation in class; how important they consider accuracy/grammar
and/or fluency to be when working on projects; whether they perceive international project
activities to be an asset in their L2 learning, and to describe any problems encountered during
project or group work. They were also asked to suggest any ideas that, in their view, would
help make ELT more interesting.

The teachers were interviewed individually, two on the school premises and one via skype.
All three interviews were conducted in the form of a casual conversation. The interviews with
Teachers A and C were conducted in English, while Teacher B chose to give her comments in
L1. I prepared four semi-structured interview questions, the first of which focused on their
view of student motivation between the ages of 13-16, that is at the lower secondary school
level. Question 2 was designed to reflect on whether project-based learning including
international project activities help achieve communicative competence for learners of
English, and question 3 required the teachers to give their opinions regarding the extent to
which project work helps achieve motivation. Finally they were asked to decribe some of the
problems faced when incorporating project work and more precisely group work in their
lessons. [See teacher interview questions in Appendix 6].

The interview questions were given to both the teachers and students before the interviews
actually took place to allow time for reflection. I now turn to the data results produced by this
research.

29

Chapter Four
Data Results Analysis and Discussion

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter I will analyse and discuss the data results obtained from the questionnaire and
the views expressed by both the students and teachers in the interviews. All 19 student
respondents from the lower secondary school level took part in the questionnaire, while only
eleven out of the initial sixteen students from the secondary schools managed to send me their
completed questionnaires by e-mail. All the interviews were carried out as planned. My
findings and data analysis will, therefore, be based on the answers and views of 30 students
and three teachers. Relevant information obtained from the student and teacher interviews has
been incorporated into the body of my dissertation along with direct quotes given by the
respondents themselves. The interview with Teacher C can be found in Appendix 7 by way of
example for the reader. All data results obtained from the questionnaire can be found in
Appendix 8, and have also been incorporated into my analysis and discussion. The results will
be analysed under the following headings:

1. Factors influencing motivation in foreign language learning

2. Motivation and communicative competence

3. The Question of Relevancy

4. Coping with problems encountered in project-based learning

4.2 Factors influencing motivation in foreign language learning

How to teach effectively in order to help learners achieve successful foreign language
learning is a language teacher's main priority. One of the main factors in determining the
outcome of any language course is motivation, which, even though achieved, may be very
difficult to maintain as the learning progresses, one of the reasons being the change in the
learners' attitude to learning as they get older (See Chapter Two). Based on the questionnaire
results, even though 26 out of the entire 30 student respondents stated they enjoyed learning

30

English when they first started learning it, when asked if they enjoy learning it now, only 19
students or 63% answered YES and 10 students or 33%, SOMETIMES, the two top reasons
being the teacher and that their own attitude to learning had changed. The three teacher
respondents seemed to agree that students at the lower secondary school level are not
motivated enough to learn. Both Teachers A and B agreed that learners are far too often
compelled to absorb too much information without really understanding it, which only adds to
their frustration and demotivation, or as Teacher B commented:

They are not adults yet and at this age do not have enough experience in life to
know why motivation is important. They are bombarded with too much information
and cannot take it all in.

'[A]part from the need to get good grades' Teacher C [see Appendix 7] did not see students at
this age as 'keen to learn', but she felt that they considered learning merely 'a process that they
have to go through'. Surprisingly, however, 96% of all the student respondents said they
would still make an effort to do well in English even if there were no tests or exams to study
for, not so much because they like it, but because it is an important language for international
communication and they plan to use it in the future. Being able to have a conversation with a
native speaker or other foreign person, and using their knowledge of English when working
on projects or other tasks independently regardless of any mistakes made, were ranked as the
top two situations where the students feel the most satisfied with their English, while good
marks on test papers ranked last. Both the student and teacher participants emphasized the
important role of the teacher in helping to motivate learners to learn and the need for project
work to make L2 learning more interesting and enjoyable. Teacher B convincingly argued:
The teacher has to be the one to motivate learners to learn because at this age many
are still not self-confident enough to know how to motivate themselves. One of the
ways that has proven to be very effective is getting them involved in international
projects, which seem to do away with the fear of the unknown and help bring back
their self-confidence.

Even though most teachers try to provide as much practice of 'real-life interactions' in the
classroom as possible (Zhenhui no date/pagination), the real test of the learners' ability to
interact in L2 comes when confronted with unexpected situations where they are forced to
react spontaneously and appropriately on the spot so to speak. Both student and teacher
interviewees were unanimous in their view regarding the impact of projects and especially
international project activities in helping to achieve this aim. Teacher C [see Appendix 7]
summed it up nicely saying, 'exposure to an international atmosphere […] [gives] the students

31

[…] another platform for the use of their acquired knowledge […] creates a sense of
adventure', where 'learning becomes more attractive to students' which 'increases their
enthusiasm and hence motivation'. All 30 student respondents enjoy working on projects
because of the variegated activities involved. [See their comments in Appendix 8 – question
results 12 and 12(a)]. Once motivation has been attained, however, it must also be maintained.

4.3 Motivation and communicative competence

Once motivation is achieved, teachers have to get the learners' linguistic and communicative
competence working hand in hand to maintain their motivation, while taking care not to
forget that 'communicative competence does not automatically result from linguistic
competence' (ibid). Bearing in mind Cook's assertion that '[t]here are times, when making
language function effectively is more important than producing perfectly pronounced,
grammatically correct sentences (1989:41), it becomes evident, as Zhenhui (no
date/pagination) states, that 'a good command of English grammar, vocabulary, and syntax
does not necessarily add up to a good mastery of English', but that there should be an
understanding of what the 'social conventions governing language form and behaviour within
a communicative group' are. All three student interviewees agreed that exposure to the target
language is vital in ELT and stressed their desire for teachers who talk too much, or are, as
(Thornbury 1997:xiii) puts it, 'over-zealous' in their desire to display their language
awareness, as well as those 'over-concerned with linguistic accuracy at the expense of
fluency', not to overdo it, but to give learners the chance to talk in order for them to gradually
gain the confidence and independence in L2 that so many of them lack. Just the right amount
of teacher input will enable learners to hear new structures and phrases being used correctly
first hand, which will not only benefit their linguistic competence, but also their
communicative competence when working independently in their groups where they will be
compelled to use what they have learned without the teacher's direct assistance. In order for
this to be meaningful to learners, the student interviewees stressed the importance of
relevance to which I now turn.

4.4 The question of relevancy

In order to 'inspire' or motivate learners to learn, Thanasoulas (2002:no pagination) reminds
us that activities have to be relevant for the learners, and it is the teachers' job to 'find out their

32

goals and the topics they want to learn, and try to incorporate them into the curriculum'. As
discussed in Chapter Two (2.2.4), it has to do with bringing the learning experience closer to
the students and making it relevant to their needs. 87% of all the student respondents agreed
that international projects made English more relevant. Speaking on behalf of the three
student interviewees, Student A commented:
By having direct contact with the language you get experience because you are forced
to use what you know and the atmosphere is a more relaxed one, which makes it easier
to correct any mistakes made without feeling pressured. If the project involves going
to another country, you have no one to depend on except yourself in getting it right
and you then begin to realize how important it is to use the language as much as
possible.

According to Student C 'by having the opportunity to use English more frequently in everyday
situations you gradually become more aware of your own accuracy and start correcting
yourself almost simultaneously'. The more opportunities learners have in using the target
language in relevent situations, the sooner they gain a deeper understanding of the meaning
behind the language. The interesting remark that Student C added was that 'you cannot help
but be more aware of your interlocutor's mistakes as well, which is sometimes difficult to
overlook, especially if the meaning behind the utterance is not understood'. When asked
at question 15(a) how international project activities have made English more relevant for
them, the students' comments included:
- You get experience in communicating in English.
- Using English in a project tells you how much you actually know.
- It helps to improve your pronunciation.
- Experience with foreign students makes learning easier.

With project-based learning it is a matter of starting with your own life experiences, with
things that relate to you as an individual, bringing these experiences to the surface, sharing
them with others and expanding them further, and where international projects are concerned,
even beyond the classroom walls. However, even though proven to be an asset, students and
teachers alike have at one time or another experienced problems when using project work in
language classrooms.

4.5 Coping with problems encountered in project-based learning

One of the problems mentioned in the survey was accuracy and the question of assessment.
Perhaps it is true that 'once language habits are formed, they are difficult to break', however,
'accuracy does not mean 100% error-free', which is in itself 'an impossible achievement'

33

(Zhenhui no date/pagination). '[E]rrors should be tolerated and the teacher should emphasize
that error-making is not at all disgraceful, but a natural and common practice' (ibid). When
asked how they would prefer to communicate in class or when working on their projects, 53%
of the student respondents preferred using a lot of English and only some L1, in their case
Slovenian, 30% preferred using only English, while only 17% opted for a little English and
mainly L1, and 0% were in favour of using L1 only. Student B remarked that 'the gravity of
grammar mistakes depends on whether you are writing, speaking, presenting or casually
discussing in L2 and that 'as school work is directly linked to grades', learners tend to make
more mistakes in class under pressure than in a relaxed atmosphere outside the classroom.
Even though projects serve as a tremendous asset to foreign language learning, only 77% of
the respondents believed that projects should be assessed, of which 65% opted for assessing
the overall project, 26% the presentation of the project, while only 9% chose assessing
grammar only. Student C added that even though grammar is very important, it should not
always be given top priority, but that conveying the intended message is almost as important
if not the most important part of language learning. The teacher interviewees agreed that even
though this is true, students should not take assessment lightly and should try to do their best
at all times, since the education system still focuses primarily on grades as the deciding factor
in their education. Student B commented that a lot of frustration could be avoided if some
teachers were not so 'narrow-minded', and added:
Some teachers do not let students give their opinions or contradict them in any way
even if the students know another answer is possible. Many teachers are very
dependent on coursebooks and stick to what is written in them, so you are not allowed
to give another answer.

Could this mean that some teachers are afraid of being challenged by learners, and prefer to
use 'methods and techniques' which they deem 'exotic' and 'modern' or which demonstrate
'specialized knowledge' to justify their 'status as professionals' in order to avoid the
'uncomfortable feeling' brought about by 'an awareness of how little more [they] really do
know about learning than [their] students' (Atkinson 1987:242)? The power generated from
teachers to students is best described by Teacher B, who commented that:
[a] negative or superior attitude to learning from the teacher will only discourage
learners to learn and that goes for whichever subject one teaches. But being
open to ideas from students will not only benefit them, but will strengthen their belief
in the teacher. This positive relationship between student and teacher is very important
in achieving motivation.

34

An investigation of the potential of international project activities for student motivation

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