1. Baking and Baking Science
http://www.bakingandbakingscience.com/
THE MATERIAL PRESENTED IN THIS DOCUMENT IS PRESENTED BY A
RETIREDBAKER WITH MANY YEARS OF PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE IN THE ART
AND SCIENCEOF BAKING. EDUCATED AT WORLD RENOWNED AMERICAN
INSTITUTE OF BAKING(AIB). American Institute of Baking ALSO OKLAHOMA STATE
UNIVERSITY-OKMULGEE,SCHOOL OF BAKING Oklahoma State University-Okmulgee
AND WILTON SCHOOL OF CAKE DECORATING AND CANDY MAKING. MEMBER
OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF BAKING ENGINEERS (ASBE). American Society of
Bakery Engineers . Bakery-Net Bakery-Net has a list of Bakery Equipment Manufacturers
and Baking Ingredient Suppliers.
PART ONE WILL BE DEVOTED TO BREAD BAKING INGREDIENTS, AND
HOWEACH INGREDIENT REACTS IN RELATION TO OTHER INGREDIENTS WHEN
MIXEDTO FORM A DOUGH.
Part One - Bread Baking Ingredients and Dough Strengtheners and Anti-Staling Ingredients
Part One (A) - Temperature -Heat Transfer and High Altitude Baking
Part one (B)- Maintenance Engineering Scholarships worth $4,000 offered by American
Institute of Baking
Part Two - Principles of Bread Production-Latest Developments in Dough Processing
Procedures & Dough Processing Equipment
Part Three - Bread Formula Construction
Part Four - Variety Breads
Part Five - Basic Sweet Dough and Danish Pastries
Part Six - Demonstrations Make - Up of Basic Sweet Dough
Part Seven - Demonstrations Make - Up of Danish Pastries
Part Eight - French Pastries
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2. Part One - Bread Baking Ingredients and Dough Strengtheners and Anti-Staling
Ingredients
BASIC INGREDIENTS
Flour. Wheat flour is essential because it is milled fromthe only cereal grain known to
contain the proteins glutenin andgliadin which when combined with water form gluten, the
elasticmaterial which holds the gas produced by the chemical reactionof the yeast enzymes on
sugar. As in building a house, the framemust be built. Gluten forms the framework of bread
and also thecell structure of the interior of the loaf. Rye flour contains bothglutenin and
gliadin but is incapable of forming gluten because there are substances in rye flour that
interferes with it's ability to form gluten. That is the reason why wheat flour must be included
as a large percentage of the flour in rye bread formulas.
How to separate the gluten from wheat flour. First you must wash out all the starches from a
mixture of flour and water as follows:
1. Mix a small amount of flour (about 8 ounces) with just enough water to form a stiff ball of
dough.
2. Soak the ball of dough in water for about 30 minutes.
3. Over a fine mesh sieve, and under running water from a faucet, wash out all the starch.
When all the starch has been removed the water will run clear. Warning, if you try to wash
gluten from soft wheat flour (cake flour), you will be able to get only a tiny bit of gluten from
it. Hard wheat flour (bread flour) will yield a large amount of gluten. Rye flour will yield zero
amount of gluten.
If you bake the ball of wet gluten at about 400 degrees F. until all the mositure has evaporated
and cut the dry gluten in half, you will see how gluten forms the frame work (structure) of
baked products.
How to separate glutenin and gliadin from gluten.
Once you have washed out the starches, you end up with raw wet gluten. If you soak the ball
of gluten in pure ethyl alcohol, theglutenin and the gliadin will separate out. The gliadin is the
sticky part and will form long tiny silky looking strands when touched with the finger. The
glutenin on the other hand will look and feel like tough raw rubber.
Types of wheat used to produce bread flour.
Hard spring wheat and hard winter wheat are the best types of wheat for producing quality
breads. Spring wheats are grown in the Northwest where there is less rainfall than in other
wheat growing areas. Thisresults in a higher percentage of protein and a lower percentageof
starch than wheats grown in the Southwest where more rain falls.Hard spring wheat generally
produce loaves with greater volumethan winter wheats, but with slightly more open crumb
texture. Millers combine the two types of wheat in their blend to improve interior loaf
characteristics. Hard White Wheat grown in some Western States, is also used in bread
production. It is slightly lower in protein than spring and winter wheats. Bakers add Vital
Wheat Gluten and/or Dough Strengtheners to doughs to make up for the deficiency. Duram
Wheats which contain a higher percentage of proteins than does most other types of wheats
are used primarily in making spaghetti and macaroni products.
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3. Milling of wheat into flour. Basically, after the wheathas been cleaned and tempered, and the
percentage of moisturewithin the grain has been adjusted, the wheat passes through
severalreduction rollers. The grounded middlings are separated into severalstreams of flour by
sieving and bolting. The bran particles whichhave been removed are used in cereals. Some are
also used foranimal feed. 100 pounds of cleaned wheat generally yield onlyabout 70 to 76
pounds of middlings which can be ground into variousgrades of flour.
Grades of flour. Whole wheat flour is flour produced from100 percent of the wheat. By
adding Vital Wheat Gluten to their formulas bakers are producing high quality White Whole
Wheat Bread.
Straight grade of flour. This is all of the flour produced afterthe outer portion (bran and
germ) have been removed. 100 poundsof wheat will produce about 72 pounds of straight
flour. Straightflour is simular to all purpose flour found in grocer stores.
Patent flour is a highly refined flour which remains after allthe clear flours have been
removed. Patent flours are producedfrom the intermost part of the wheat where the best
quality proteinsare located. 100 pounds of wheat will produce only about 40 to60 pounds of
patent flour, and the middlings that remain go intoclear flours.
Clear flour is the portion of the flour remaining after the patentflour streams have been
separated. Clear flour generally containa higher percentage of protein than the other grades,
but thequality of the protein is lower. This type pf flour is generallyused to produce French
bread. It is also mixed with wheat flourand rye flour by the baker to produce loaves with
greater volume.
Flour bleaching and maturing. In order to produce qualitybreads from fresh milled flour it
must be allowed to age or maturein storage for about a month. Bleaching and maturing agents
areused to artifically age and whiten the flour. This results inflour that can be used
immediately after milling to produce aquality product.
Strength of flour is its ability to be made into well piledloaves. The flour should have a high
content of quality proteinto retain gas and contain enough natural sugars and diastaticenzymes
to produce enough sugar from the starch for uniform gasproduction.
Tolerance is the ability to produce a quality product forsome time after the optimum
fermentation time has elapsed. andin the event that the dough was overmixed.
Enrichment of flour is the process of replacing the vitaminsand minerals removed during the
milling process.. Most of thevitamins and minerals are located in the outer portions of
thewheat, and since most of the outer portions of the wheat are notused to produce the best
grades of flour, these essential elementsmust be replaced. The exception is whole wheat flour.
Enzymes in flour. The two most important enzymes in flourare protease and diastase.
Protease conditions the gluten, improvingits elasticity and its ability to retain the gas produced
duringfermentation. Diastase changes some of the starch in flour todextrins and maltose
sugar. Some flours do not contain a sufficientamount of diastase enzyme due to poor climatic
conditions underwhich the wheat was grown. Sproted wheat can be added to the flourby the
miller or the baker can add a specially prepared diastaticmalt in his formula.
Rye flour is a finely ground flour prepared from the ryegrain. It contains about the same
amount of protein as wheat flour.However, the flour contains gummy substances which
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4. prevent formationof gluten, accounting for the small compact loaves of bread mademade from
a dough containing only rye flour. To produce rye breadwith acceptable volume, not more
than 20 percent dark rye flour,30 percent medium rye flour,and 40 percent light rye flour
canbe used in the formula. White bread flour must be used in theformula so enough gluten can
be formed to hold the gas duringfermentation, and to form the structure of the texture.
Water. Water is a basic ingredient in bread baking. Itwould be impossible to produce a loaf
of bread without water insome form. There are several types of water. Hard water
producesbetter quality bread than any type of water. Soft water weekensthe gluten during
mixing and fermentation. This can be correctedto some degree by increasing the percentage of
salt in the formulaslightly and by using mineral yeast food in the formula. Alkalinewater is
the most harmful, because it doesn't only weaken thegluten, but retards fermentation. Yeast
likes a slightly acidmedium to perform at its best. The weakening of the gluten andretarding
effect on yeast can be corrected by using an acid ingredientsuch as vinegar ( acedic acid ) or
lactic acid. Special typesof mineral yeast food has been developed to correct this problem.
Yeast is one of the essential ingredients in bread production.It is a one cell plant which
multiplies by a process known asbudding. Under the right conditions of water, sugars,
warmth,and dissolved minerals, yeast causes fermentation. Yeast is availablein compressed
form which must be kept under refrigeration untilit is ready to be used and active dry yeast
which need not berefrigerated. Active dry yeast has an extended shelf life. Bothwill generally
produce satisfactory results. However, a majorityof large Commercial Bread Bakeries use
compressed yeast in theirformulas. When using active dry yeast half as much active dry
yeastis required as compared with compressed yeast.
Enzymes in yeast consist of invertase, maltase, zymaseand protease. There are others, but
they are not important inbread production. The protease enzyme in yeast is only activeif the
cell wall of the yeast is damaged in some way. That isthe only time it can penetrate the cell
wall of the yeast. Thereare always a few damaged yeast cells especially in dry yeast
wheresome cells are damaged during the drying process, or in yeastthat has gotten a little old.
If the protease enzyme does penetratethe cell wall of the yeast, it will weaken the gluten.
Invertase enzyme is an entercelluar enzyme. Sucrose, ( cane orbeet sugar ) when dissolved
enter the cell wall and are changedto dextrose and fructose, which are later changed by the
enzymezymase ( below ). Maltase attacks malt sugar. The malt sugar ischanged to two
molecules of the simple sugars dextrose.
Zymase is the enzyme which changes the simple sugars, dextroseand fructose into carbon
dioxide gas and alcohol, and severalesters which result in producing the unique aroma flavor
and tasteof breads. Also, the gas produced causes the dough to rise.. Fermentationwill be
discussed in more detail in a later paragraph on breadproduction procedures.
Salt is another essential ingredient in quality bread production.It has several functions. It
regulates fermentation. Too littlesalt causes the dough to ferment too fast and wild, while
toomuch salt slows down the fermentation process. Salt is a verypowerful ingredient and it
must be scaled very carefully whenweighing the ingredients for the dough. In the proper
amount,salt produces good grain and texture, because it strengthens thegluten allowing it to
fully mature during fermentation. It alsoprevents the growth of wild yeast and bacteria. A
whiter crumbis produced and last but not least, it brings out the taste andflavor of bread.
ENRICHING INGREDIENTS
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5. Sugar. Cane or beet sugar ( sucrose ) are basically thesame. They are both compound sugars
and must be changed to simplesugars by the yeast enzyme invertase before the yeast can
convertthem to carbon dioxide gas and alcohol by the yeast enzyme zymase.
Dextrose also known as corn sugar is producedby converting corn starch into sugar. It is
interchangeable withcane and beet sugar in bread production. However, its sweeteningvalue is
only about 72 as compared to a sweetness value 0f 100for cane or beet sugar.
Fructose or levulose, found in fruits, molases, and honey is aleft handed sugar which means
it reflects polarized light to theleft whereas dextrose reflects polarized light to the right.
Highfructose has in recent years been produced from corn starch bya special process which
was unknown just a few years ago. It hasa sweetening value considerably higher than any
other type ofsugar ( about 172 ).
Lactose sugar is sugar found in milk, and is not fermentable bybakers yeast. At the end of the
baking process it remains as lactosesugar in the baked bread. Its sweetening value is very low
comparedto the other sugars.
Functions of sugar. Sugar is not considered an essentialingredient in bread baking. This is
because flour contains a smallamount of natural sugars and some starch is converted to
sugarduring the fermentation process. It does have many important functions.Some of the
added sugar is converted to carbon dioxide and alcoholby the yeast enzymes. It provides
necessary sweetness, helps toproduce a golden brown color of the crust, improves the
textureof the crumb, helps to retain moisture in the crumb and adds tothe nutritional value of
the bread. High percentage of sugar asused in sweet doughs and Danish pastry doughs retard
yeast activity.That is the reason why when increasing the percentage of sugarin doughs, the
percentage of yeast must be increased by the sameproportion.
Milk.Several years ago non fat dry milk was the type of milk generally used in bread baking,
but today it has become too expensive to use by most commercial bread bakeries. In it's place
they usemilk subsitutes such as milk whey in combination with other ingredientssuch as
soyflour.
Functions of milk are many. It has a stabalizing effect on fermentation,preventing wild
fermentation. It improves crust color becauseof the lactose sugar it contains. The lactose sugar
is not fermentableby baker's yeast. It also improves texture, crumb color, flavorand taste, and
keeping quality of the baked loaf. If non fat dry milk is used in bread it must be heated to a
high enough temperature during the dryingprocess to destroy bacteria which weakens the
gluten in the dough.Milk dried by the vacuum drying process must be properly heat treated
prior to being dried otherwise considerable difficulty can be expected during mixing and
fermentation of the dough.
Shortenings are available from many sources. Most any typeof shortening can be used in
bread production with satisfactoryresults.
Functions of shortening. Shortening acts as a lubricantin the dough, making the dough more
pliable, prevents stickeness,and reduces the amount of dusting flour necessary during the
make-upprocess.. When shortening is used, the dough expands more easilyand smoothly. In
the baked product it makes the crust more tender,improves the keeping quality and produces a
crumb that is softand chewey. Because of the cutting effect on the bran in wholewheat flour, it
is almost impossible to produce a loaf of wholewheat bread with acceptable volume without
using shortening inthe formula.
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6. Optional ingredients. To produce a variety of quality breads,optional ingredients are
required. They result in uniformity ofproducts and efficiency of operations, assist in
increasing thetolerances of doughs due to production variables, and help tosatisfy the demand
for variety in the flavor and taste of breads.Mold inhibitors prevent bread from becoming
molded.
Mineral yeast food was developed to stabilize water byadding mineral salts, which are
essential in dough fermentationand conditioning. Mineral salts condition soft water, andacid
salts neutralize the alkalinity of alkaline water which isharmful to yeast and gluten. Doughs
made with mineral yeast foodsare not sticky and are very soft. They go through machines
withless trouble and will mold up free of air pockets. Following aresome of the improved loaf
characteristics resulting from the useof mineral yeast foods: Greater loaf volume and
ovenspring,improved texture and crumb color, better crust color, and greateruniformity.
Dough Strengthening Enzymes.Wheat Flour contain between 2 and 3 percent Pentosans
which are the residual cell wall material that is left as a result of milling wheat into flour.
When an enzyme named Xylanases is added to the dough, it breaks down the
pentosansresulting in strengthening doughs and improving the baked product.Xylanase
enzymes also strengthen multi-grain doughs and doughs forrolls and buns. This a very
powerful enzyme therefore only 100 to200 parts per million can be used to achieve the
desired results.
Malt cereal syrup is available with low diastatic activity,high diastatic activity, and non
diastatic activity dependingupon the amount of diastase enzymes they contain. Low
diastaticmalt is produced for use with flour which has a fair amount ofdiastatic enzymes. High
diastatic malt is used with flours whichhave a relatively small amount of diastatic enzymes.
Non diastaticmalt would be used with flours having a relatively high amountof diastatic
enzymes. The amount of enzymes contained in maltis controlled by the manufacturer by
heating the malt to varioustemperatures during production. Malt syrups are concentrated
productsmade by evaporating the water extract of malted barley and othercereal grains. In
addition to containing diastatic enzymes, diastaticmalt also contain enzymes which assist in
adjusting proteolyticaction of the dough to compensate for flours of different
proteolyticcontent. High diastatic malts will also be high in proteolyticactivity and vice versa.
As mentioned in previous paragraphs,diastase enzymes convert some of the starch to dextrins
and maltosesugar while protease enzymes condition the gluten in dough. Inaddition to enzyme
functions, malted cereal syrup contain a highpercentage of fermentable maltose sugar as well
as soluble proteinsand natural salts which serve as valuable yeast nutrients.
Rye flavoring is a concentrated flavoring ingredient inpowdered form. It gives rye bread an
acetic taste as well as aspiced flavor. A preliminary sour dough is not required to enhancethe
flavor and aroma of rye bread.
Poppy seeds are used as a topping for French breads androlls. They produce a nutty flavor in
the baked product. Justbefore the loaves or rolls are loaded in the oven, they are washedwith a
cooked cornstarch wash which is thin enough to brush onor spray on. Egg wash can also be
used. The seeds are then sprinkledon. The wash keeps the seeds from falling off the loaf or
rolls.
Seame seeds are small oval-shaped seeds of the sesamumfamily. The seeds are pearly white
in color and produce a rich,toasted nut flavor. They are, like poppy seeds, sprinkled on
washedFrench breads and rolls.
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7. Staling of Bakery Products and Mold Infection
There are three ways in which bakery products stale. They are Starch Retrogradation (Firming
of the Crumb) and by getting infected by molds and rope. See below.
In simple terms, Staling of crumb (firming of crumb)-is the process the starch molecules go
through when they shrink upon cooling. Starch molecule consists of a very long chain of
Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen that are stretched out when warm and feel soft. Upon cooling,
the chain shrinks and thus become firm which is called staling. You have probably
experienced that when a stale product is warmed, it becomes soft. The starch chain has
stretched again. Upon cooling, it shrinks again and become firm.
Anti-Staling Ingredients..
1.Emuliifiers. For the past several years bakers used emulsifiers called bread softeners to
produce bread that will remain soft for a longer period of time. It is added to the dough during
mixing. Some of the more common ones are monoglycrides, calcium steroyl lactylate, and
sodium steroyl lactylate. The softening action takes place after the bread is baked. Also,
Potato bread will reist staling because potatoes act as anti-staling ingredients to some degree.
Some anti-staling ingredients also perform as dough conditioners or dough strengtheners.
2.Enzymes. Enzyme manufacturers are hard at work on generic engineering and protein
engineering producing enzymes to extend the shelf life of bread many fold. In a paper
presented at the 1999 American Society of Baking's Annual Convention, it was stated that
some of these enzymes are available now. However, since every baker wants to have one
better, enzyme manufacturers will continue to work on developing better ones. It was also
stated that there is a lag time of between 2 and 3 years between the time a specific enzyme is
identified and actually having it available for the baker to use.
Advantages of Using Enzymes instead of Chemicals. Since enzymes are producedfrom
natural ingredients, they will find greater acceptance by the housewife than when chemicals
are used.
3.Mold and Mold Inhibitors. Sanitation plays a very important role in preventing mold in
bread. Mold spores do not survive baking temperatures. The interior of the loaf, when it
comes out of the oven is about 210 to 212 degrees F. which will destroy any mold spores
which may be present in the dough. Therefore, bread and other bakery products can only be
contaminated after they leave the oven. Some of the more dangerous areas for mold
contmination are storage rooms, and slicing machine blades which come in direct contact with
the interior of the loaf where there is an abundant supply of food and moisture. Mold spores
also thrive in dark places. You can extend the length of time that it takes bakery products to
mold by several days by using Mold Inhibitors such as Calcium Propionate for yeast raised
doughs and sodium propionate in chemically leavened products. Propionates are present in
many foods, but in very small amounts. Swiss Cheese, however is an exception. For this
reason, Swiss Cheese rarely molds, unless it is improperly developed. Propionates may be
obtained by the oxidization of propyl alcohol, forming propionic acid. The propionic acid is in
turn combined with other chemicals to form the well known Sodium and Calcium propionates
sold under different Trades Names. Mold Inhibitors react as an alkaline in doughs, and since
yeast doesn't like an alkaline condition, Mineral Yeast Foods containing monocalcium
phosphate are added to the dough. Monocalcium Phosphate reacts as an acid in doughs
therefore counteracting the alkaline which is formed by the propionates. Also, vinegar can be
used at the rate of about 1 pint per 100 pounds of flour. Inhibitors are called inhibitors,
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8. because not enough is used to kill the mold. They only retard the growth of molds. Bread will
mold eventually if kept in a warm moist invironment. The amounts of Calcium Propionates to
use in bread varies with the climate, season of the year, or type of product. Dark Breads
require more than White Breads. For average climates, 2.5 to 3.5 ounces are used per 100
pounds of flour in White Breads and 4.0 to 5.0 ounces are used in Dark Breads.
Types and Color of Molds. There are many different types of molds and they have different
colors. Mold spores are practically everywhere, because they are very tiny and are carried in
the air. They are so tiny that they can only be seen under a microscope. Mold Spores are like
seeds that you plant in the garden. When they come in contact with the proper food, moisture
and warmth, the spores produce mold plants which you can see with the naked eye.
Rope. Rope is a bread disease caused by the bacteria, Bacillus mesentericus. This disease
breaks down the cells of the bread and leaves a sticky, pasty mass. When the crumb is pressed
together, and pulled apart, it will stretch into long, sticky, web-like strands. The product will
have the odor of overripe cantalope. The rope bacteria are too small to see with the naked eye,
but they can be seen with a microscope. The bacteria can be present in the ingredients,
especially flour and yeast. Unlike mold, rope spores are not destroyed by baking
temperatures. Calcium propionate, sodium diacetate or one pint of vinegar per 100 pounds of
flour can be used in bread doughs to increase the shelf life of the product. If the bakery is
contaminated, thorough cleaning with special chemicals will be necessary and/or the bakery
may have to be steam cleaned.
NOTE: SODIUM PROPIONATE IS USED IN CAKE BAKING (NOT CALCIUM
PROPIONATE).
To lower the Ph to 6.5 (Most effective Ph) in cakes when using Sodium Propionate is to use
an acid ingredient and then you would have to do some experiments to determine how much
to use.
Some of the acid ingredients which you might use in the event you wanted to try to lower the
Ph of your products are listed below.
1. Monocalcium phosphate.,
2. Anhydrous monocalcium phosphate, has greater stability by being coated with potassium
and aluminum phosphates.
3. Sodium aluminum phosphate.
4. Cream of tartar or potassium acid tartrate.
Representative Ph ranges of various types of finished cakes (not their batters) follows: White
layer cakes 7.0 to 7.5; Devil's food cake 8.0 to 9.0; Angel food cake 5.2 to 6.0; yellow layer
cake 6.7 to 7.5 and chocolate cake 7.5 to 8.0.
One Text Book on Baking (Breadmaking Technology) by Wulf T. Doerry published by the
American Institute of Baking recommends using a 5 percent solution of potassium sorbate to
spray the products as they leave the oven. This method is quite effective against mold growth,
since the preservative is concentrated on the serface of the product where recontamination
with mold spores takes place. Sorbate Spray Applicators are available for spraying the
potassium sorbate solution.
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9. One text book (Baking Science and Technology), Third Addition, Volume 1 by E. J. Pyler
published by Sosland Publishing Company suggest using 0.03 to 0.125 percent of Sorbic Acid
based on batter weight in cakes, pies. pie fillings,fruit cakes and icings. At that level it will not
affect the taste and flavor of the finished product. The problem with sorbic acid is that it is not
effective at high Ph (9.0 or higher) such as in devils food cake.
Acknowledgments. Material on Mold and Mold Inhibitors was also derived from the
following sources:
1. A Treatise on Baking by The Fleischman Division of Standard Brands, Inc.
2. Conversion Factors and Technical Data of the Industry by The Research Department,
Pillsbury Mills, Inc.
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10. PART ONE- (A) --Temperature and humidity including measuring & controling
instruments
THE PROPER MAINTENANCE AND REGULATION OF TEMPERATURE AND
HUMIDITY IN THE PRODUCTION OF QUALITY BAKERY FOODS IS OF THE
UTMOST IMPORTANCE IN REGARDS TO THE EFFICIENT AND SUCCESSFUL
OPERATION AND MANAGEMENT OF A BAKERY. QUALITY INGREDIENTS AND
THE HANDLING OF THE SAME THROUGHOUT THE VARIOUS STAGES OF
PRODUCTION WILL NOT RESULT IN A QUALITY PRODUCT UNLESS THE DOUGH
TEMPERATURE AND THE TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY OF THE BAKERY ARE
PROPERLY REGULATED. MODERN DAY BAKERIES UTILIZE SPECIAL
AUTOMATIC AIR CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT TO ACCOMPLISH THIS. IN VIEW
OF THE IMPORTANT PART WHICH TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY PLAYS IN
THE SUCCESSFUL OPERATION OF A BAKERY, IT IS ESSENTIAL THAT EVERY
BAKER UNDERSTAND IN A GENERAL WAY THE FOLLOWING POINTS:
1. What is meant by temperature and humidity.
2. How temperature and humidity are measured.
3. What effect does temperature and humidity have on the fermentation and conditioning of
doughs. (This information is covered in Part Two, Bread Production Procedures).
4. The proper dough temperature to be maintained. How determined and calculated. (This
information is covered in Part Two also).
5. The proper temperature and humidity to be maintained in the various parts of the bakery,
and how this is controlled.
The following paragraphs contain a discription of these points:
A. TEMPERATURE AND HEAT. Temperature is considered the degree of hotness or
coolness of any object. Scientist describe temperature as the intensity of heat.
B. WAYS IN WHICH HEAT IS TRANSMITTED.
1. CONDUCTION. Upon holding a metal rod at one end, the molecules will vibrate and pass
the effect on down the line so that the other end becomes hot also. If a copper wire is held in
one hand and a glass rod held in the other of the same size and length, and they are both
placed over a flame, the heat will pass along the copper wire long before it will pass along the
glass rod. The result will be that the copper wire will have to be dropped long before the glass
rod has a chance to even feel warm where it is being held. Usually good conductors of heat
are good conductors of electricity and vice versa. Liquids and gasses are poorer conductors of
heat than metals. Iron conducts heat 100 times better than water and water conducts heat 25
times better than air.
2. CONVECTION. In the case of water, convection is explained by the fact that when water is
heated, it expands. This decreases its density and the warm water rises. The movement of the
water sets up convection currents. A good example is cake batters such as marble cake. The
convection currents cause swirls of batter to rise from either side and go downward in the
center causing a certain design of the two types of batter being used, usually yellow cake
batter and chocolate came batter.
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11. 3. RADIATION. Radiation is heat sent out in straight lines. Most of the heat in ovens is
radiated heat. Light objects reflect heat and dark objects absorb heat. In turn, dark objects
radiate more heat than light objects. Iron will heat or bake faster when dark than when shiny.
Following are examples which will illustrate this principle:
3a. Take two pieces of sheet metal about 10 inches wide and 18 inches long.
3b. Paint one of the pieces BLACK and one WHITE.
3C. Bend about 6 inches of each piece so that the short end will face horizontal so when it is
placed on a table, the vertical end will stand up straight.
3d. Melt the ends of two candles and cause one candle to stick to the DARK PIECE OF
METAL and the other candle to stick to the WHITE PIECE OF METAL.
3e. Place the two pieces of metal about 4 inches apart with the candles facing outwards.
3f. Place a BUNSEN BURNER BETWEEN THE TWO PIECES OF METAL MAKING
SURE THAT THERE IS EQUAL DISTANCE BETWEEN THE TWO. LIGHT THE
BUNSEN BURNER.
3g. Because the dark metal will absorb heat faster than the white metal, the candle will fall off
long before the one on the while metal does.
3h. Another example is when baking pastries containing dark and light colored fillings. If one
coffee cake is filled with a dark colored filling and one is filled with a light colored filling,
and the two are placed on the same baking pan, the coffee cake containing the dark filling will
bake sooner than the one with the light colored filling and the crust will be darker.
3i The same holds true if for example apple pies and cherry pies are being baked at the same
time. The cherry pie will bake faster and to a darker degree than will the apple pie.
3j. Bakers have also observed that the old Sweedish baking pans which were dull black in
color, were more efficient than our modern tin-plated pans. A bright new tin-plated pan will
not bake bread as well as the same pan after it has been properly burned- in. Burning -in
produces a coating of tin oxide which is dark, and therefore it is capable of absorbing more of
the radiated heat from the oven. In turn, the radiated heat is transferred to the bread being
baked. The burning-in is accomplished as follows:
3k.. The new shiny pan is placed in an oven having a temperature of 375 degrees F. to 425
degrees F. for a period of several hours until the surface starts to acquire a bluish tinge. It is
recommended that the oven doors be left open to permit free circulation of air throughout the
baking chamber.
3l. Caution must be taken not to place the baking pans in oven having a temperature above
425 degrees F. , because tin has a melting point of approximately 439 degrees F. If the tin is
allowed to melt, it will peel away from the steel plate, leaving the steel exposed so that it may
rust.
3n. While the pans are still warm, grease them lightly with a smooth flowing shortening. The
melted fat fills in the tiny pores in the metal which have been opened during the heating
process. When the metal cools, the pores are closed, entrapping a small amount of shortening
11

12. rendering the pan ready for the baking process. Note: If the pans are to be glazed, it will not
be necessary to grease the pans. Usually pans are sent to a company which specializes in the
glazing of pans. The glaze will last for quite some time, and when the bread starts to stick to
the pans, the glazing process must be repeated.
C. MEASUREMENT OF HEAT.
1. The British Thermal Unit (BTU). In measuring the amount of heat used in accordance with
the British System, a unit termed a British Thermal Unit or B.T.U. is employed. This is the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water 1 degree F. Thus, the
specific heat of water is defined as the amount of heat necessary to raise it's temperature 1
degrees F. The specific heat of all other subances that you use every day have specific heats
lower than water. Therefore, 1 BTU will raise one pound of any other common substance
more degrees F. than it will raise 1 pound of water. EXmples:
BTU Will Raise 1 Pound of. Degrees F..
one Water 1
one Bread Dough 1-1/2
one Cake batter 2
one Flour 2-1/2
one Aluminum 5
one Copper 10
one Silver 20
one Lead 30
2. Heat of evaporation of water. When a container of water is placed on a burner, the water
gets hotter and hotter until it boils. Then no matter how much heat is applied to the container,
if there is a free outlet for the steam to escape, the temperature remains constant at 212
degrees F. at sea level. The heat energy which seems to be absorbed in the process of boiling
the water with out change in temperarure is called the HEAT OF VAPORATION or THE
LATENT HEAT OF STEAM. The HEAT OF VAPORATION is the energy needed to pull
the molecules of water from one another and set them free as steam. Experiments have shown
that the HEAT Of VAPORATION of water is about 972 BTU'S. In other words, it takes 972
BTU'S to of heat to change 1 pound of water at 212 Degrees F. into steam at 212 degrees F. It
takes more than five times as much heat to change 1 pound of water into steam as it does to
change 1 pound of water from the freezing point 32 degrees F., to the boiling point of 212
degrees F.
3. Boiling point of water at High Altitudes.
Degrees F. Altitude in Feet. Location..
210 1000 Phoenix
208 1,900 Spokane/TD>
206 2,900 Boise, Idaho
204 4,100 Helena, Mont.
201.5 5,300 Denver, Col
199 7,000 Santa Fe, N.M.
186 14,000 Pikes Peak
3a. Water will boil at lower temperature under vacuum.
12

13. 3b. Water will also boil at higher temperature under pressure.
4. Baking Cakes At High Altitudes
As we go higher in altitude, the pressure of the atmosphere becomes less, therefore less
leavening action is needed. Up to 2,000 feet no adjustment is needed. After 2,000 feet up to
15 percent less baking powder is needed, and progressively less is needed as we go higher.
Past 5,000 feet reduce baking powder 45 percent. Past 6,500 feet reduce baking powder 60
percent and increase water by 20 percent. Water is increased because water boils at a lower
temperature and there is an increase in evaporation. (At Pikes peak, a pressure cooker is
necessary to cook beans and potatoes, because water boils at 186 degree F rather than 212
Degrees F, at sea level so it doesn't get hot enough to cook them). Additional Adjustments: 1.
Beginning at 2,500 feet add 2-1/2 percent more eggs or egg whites. Gradually increase eggs
until at 7,500 feet 15 percent more eggs are needed. 2. Over 4,500 feet grease baking pans
slightly heavier, and increase oven temperature approximately 25 degrees F. 3. Less beating
of eggs and egg whites are nmeeded for Angel Food Cakes and Sponge Cakes. .
D. TEMPERATURE.- FAHRENHEIT and CENTIGRADE SCALES. The measurement of
temperature is expressed in terms of degrees.
1. According to the Farenheit System, 32 degrees F. indicates the temperature at which ice
melts, and 212 degrees F. is the temperature at which water boils under standard conditions
(at sea level).
2. According to the Centigrade Scale, the freezing point of water is 0 degrees C, and the
boiling point 100 degrees under the same conditions.
E. MEANS OF MEASURING TEMPERATURE. Necessity of the use of Temperature
Measuring Instruments.
1. THERMOMETERS. Ordinary glass tube thermometers may be used for determining the
temperature of the ingredients. However, a standard Dough Thermometer with a long metal
base should be available for use in checking the dough temperature. Farenheit thermometers
ordinarily are used in the bakery, but if Centigrade readings must be used, the Fahrenheit
readings can be converted easily to Centigrade degrees.
1a. The rule for converting Fahrenheit degrees to Centigrade degrees is: Subtract 32 from the
Fahrenheit reading. Then multiply the answer by 5/9. This will give the Centigrade degree.
1b. Example: Suppose it is desired to express 77 degrees F. in terms of degrees Centigrade,
then 77 minus 32 equals 45. 45 times 5/9 equals 25 Degrees Centigrade.
13

14. THE DOUGH THERMOMETER IS USED TO CHECK THE TEMPERATURE OF THE
DOUGH IMMEDIATELY AFTER IT HAS BEN DISCHARGED FROM THE MIXER
AFTER COMPLETION OF MIXING.
2. MERCURY THERMOMETER.
2a. The ordinary mercury thermometer is perhaps the best known instrument for measuring
temperature. The operation of a mercury thermometer is based on the fact that mercury or
quicksilver expands when heated and contracts when cooled to a much greater extent than
glass. The amount of this expansion or contraction corresponds to the change in temperature
and therefore may be used to indicate the existing temperature at any time.
2b. A simple mercury thermometer consists of a heavy glass tube of very narrow bore and has
a bulb at one end containing mercury. The other end of the tube is sealed tightly. The
thermometer tube is so graduated or marked that it will indicate correctly the prevailing
temperature to which the thermometer is exposed. Mercury thermometers can be constructed
covering ranges of temperatures between 38 degrees below zero Fahrenheit and about 900
degrees above zero Fahrenheit.
3. DIAL THERMOMETERS. The basic principle upon which this type of instrument operates
is similar to that described for the mercury thermometer. The bulb tubings are filled with
mercury gas. The bulb is placed at the point where temperature is to be determined. A rise in
temperature at the location of the bulb increases the internal pressure which is transmitted
through the tubing. The mechanism is so arranged that this increase in internal pressure causes
a hand to move across a graduated dial. The extent of this movement naturally depends on the
14

15. temperature at the location of the bulb. Therefore the temperature is indicated on the dial
accurately and immediately.
4. ELECTRIC PYROMETER. This instrument is sometimes called an electric thermometer,
but is different from either the mercury thermometer or the metallic expansion thermometer in
it's mode of operation. The electric pyrometer is generally used for high temperature
measurements such as that of ovens.
5. RECORDING TEMPERATURE INSTRUMENTS. In order to secure a permanent record
of any particular location, ( fermentation room, proof box, or oven) recording devices have
been constructed in connection with various types of temperature-indicating instruments.
These recording attachments usually consist of a chart which is gradually moved by
clockwork and a pen point which is attached to the temperature indicating needle. This pen
point rests on the moving chart and in this way marks down the temperature in the form of a
line. Therefore at the end of the day there will be a complete record on the chart of the
temperature at all times during the day. Such recording devices are used to good advantage in
modern bakeries, and are generally termed Recording Thermometers.
6. TEMPERATURE REGULATING DEVICES.
6a. In bakeries equipped with air conditioning equipment where air is circulated through the
dough fermentation room, make-up room or proof box at the desired temperature and
humidity, the problem of maintaining proper atmospheric conditions is considerably
simplified. Temperature regulating devices are available for doing this automatically. Such
regulators are often spoken of as thermonstats.
6b. ELECTRIC CONTACT TEMPERATURE CONTROL. The function of this instrument is
to control the temperature of gas or electric baking ovens, or doughnut machines, by opening
or closing motor operated valves, or other electrical devices. It can be set for any desired
temperature and the control point is quickly and easily changed. The bulb is placed at the
point where the temperature is to be controlled and the case containing the indicated dial may
be located at any convenient point. The temperature changes at the bulb are transmitted by
pressure through the tubing to the mechanism which starts or stops the motor or other
controlled device. At the same time the instrument indicates the actual temperature at the
location of the bulb.
6c. RECORDING TEMPERATURE REGULATOR. This instrument not only regulates the
temperature, but records on a chart, the temperature that has been maintained. The
temperature may be quickly changed by inserting a turning key which moves a pointer on the
chart to any degree of temperature desired. Such an instrument is accurate and sensitive. It
operates by means of compressed air, opening or closing valves in order to regulate the
temperature. It may be used in connection with proof boxes to control the temperature or as a
double duty system to control both the wet and dry bulb temperatures, thus regulating the
relative humidity, and at the soame time producing a record of these temperatures on one
chart.
F. HUMIDITY. Roughly speaking, humidity means the wetness of the atmosphere, or in other
words, the amount of moisture or water vapor contained in air. It is a well known fact that on
some days the air is dryer or less humid than on other days.
1. DEFINITION OF RELATIVE HUMIDITY. Relative humidity means the relative amount
of moisture contained in air at a definite temperature in comparision with the amount of water
15

16. vapor which air at that temperature is capable of holding. Relative humidity is expressed in
terms of percentage. All air narurally available under ordinary conditions contain some
moisture, but let us suppose, for the sake of example, that we did have air at a certain
temperature which contained no moisture. This air would have a relative humidity of 0
percent. If however, this air at the same temperature were saturated with all the water vapor it
could hold, then it would have a relative humidity of 100 percent. If this were to contain 70
percent of the maximum amount of all the moisture it could possibly hold at this temperature,
it would have a relative humidity of 70 percent. The higher temperature the greater the
amount of water vapor which can be held by the air. Therefore, hot air can hold much more
moisture than cooler air, and in the summer time, the air is often more humid than in the
winter time. If air with fairly high humidity were chilled, it would soon have a relative
humudity of 100 percent and then drops of water would begin to separate out in the form of
dew.
2. MAINTENANCE AND CONTROL OF RELATIVE HUMIDITY. The maintenance and
control of humidity in all parts of the bakery, dough fermentation room, proof box, oven etc.
is of the utmost importance in the efficient production of quality bakery foods. The proper
humidity in different parts of the bakery may be secured by the use of automatic air
conditioning equipment as explained earlier.
3. MEANS OF MEASURING RELATIVE HUMIDITY. The percentage of relative humidity
in the various parts of the bakery is measured by an instrument known as a hygrometer. There
are several different types of such instruments which can be used.
3a. WET AND DRY BULB THERMOMETER. The principle on which the wet and dry bulb
thermometer operates so as to indicate the relative humidity of the atmosphere is based on the
fact that when water or any liquid evaporates it has a cooling effect, and that the faster this
evaporation, the greater the cooling effect. This point may be demonstrated by wetting the
hand with water and then fanning the moistened surface so that the water will evaporate or
dry quickly. Everyone is familar with the cooling sensation produced. The wet and dry bulb
thermometer arrangement merely consists of two thermometers identically alike, mounted
close together on a frame. The mercury bulb of one of these thermometers is left exposed to
the air. This is called the dry bulb thermometer. The mercury bulb of the other thermometer is
tightly covered with a wick or cloth, the other end of which extend into a small vessel or tube
of water. The water soaks up through the wick and the mercury bulb is surrounded by a thin
layer of water and is therefore always wet. This is called the wet bulb thermometer. Due to the
cooling effect of the evaporation of the water, the wet bulb will ordinarily read lower than the
dry bulb thermometer. The difference in the readings of these two thermometers at any one
time depends upon the rate of the evaporation of the water surrounding the mercury bulb of
the wet bulb thermometer. Since water evaporates more slowly in humid air than it does in
drier air, it can be easily seen that there will be less evaporation of the water in the wick
where the relative humidity is high than when it is low. Consequently, the lower the relative
humidity the greater will be the difference between the readings of the wet and dry bulb
thermometers, and vice versa. If, for instance, the air is saturated with moisture, or in other
words, if the relative humidity is 100 percent, then there would be no difference at all between
the readings of the two thermometers. In using the wet and dry bulb thermometer arrangement
it is necessary that an adequate supply of clean distilled water be kept in the resorvoir at all
times so that the wick will always be thoroughly wet. Frequent replacement of wicks by new
ones is important. The entire wick must also be kept clean and free from dirt or anything
which would interfere with the free seepage of water through it. It is also a good idea to fan
the wet bulb thermometer slightly before making the actual readings. The actual difference in
temperatures noted is an indication of the percentage or degree of relative humidity of the
16

17. atmosphere at the time and place that the readings are made. By referring to a chart which
may be secured from the U. S. Weather Bureau, the actual relative humidity can be secured.
Such charts are usually supplied with the wet and dry bulb thermometers when purchased
along with instructions on how to read the chart.
THE WET AND DRY BULB THERMOMETER IS USED TO REGISTER THE
TEMPERATURE OF THE WET BULB AND THE DRY BULB THERMOMETER OF
THE FERMENTATION ROOM AND OF THE PROOFING CABINET SO THAT THE
PERCENT RELATIVE HUMIDITY CAN BE DETERMINED BY REFEERRING TO THE
RELATIVE HUMIDITY TABLE SHOWN BELOW.
SEE STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE FOR READING THE RELATIVE HUMIDITY
TABLE TO DETERMINE PERCENT RELATIVE HUMIDITY OF THE FERMENTATION
ROOM AND OF THE PROOFING CABINET.
3b. MAKING THE READINGS. At ordinary barometric pressure the relative humidity chart
will give the baker the necessary data covering the range of relative humidities ordinarily
encountered in the different sections of the bakery. In using such a chart proceed as follows:
3b1. Note the room temperature by reading the dry bulb thermometer.
3b2. At the same time read the wet bulb thermometer.
3b3. Then refer to the Relative Humidity Table, locating the reading in the left-hand vertical
column which corresponds to the existing room temperature.
3b4. Then follow this line over horizontally until it meets the column headed by the number
of degrees representing the depression on the wet bulb thermometer (or in other words the
difference between the dry bulb and wet bulb thermometers). The number thus located
17

18. represents the existing percentage of relative humidity. Example: Suppose the reading of the
dry bulb thermometer is 80 degrees F. and the corresponding reading of the wet bulb
thermometer is 72 degrees F. The difference between these readings is 8 degrees. Therefore
the existing relative humidity is 68 percent.
3c. HUMIDITIGUIDE This instrument is a special type of wet and dry bulb thermometer, and
the principle of its operation is basically the same as the the one discussed above. However,
the humiditiguide is equipped with a semi-automatic scale located between the individual wet
and dry bulb thermometers. This scale can be adjusted by a knob at the top, so as to determine
the existing relative hunidity as indicated by the difference in temperature of the two
thermometers. This instrument indicates relative humidity with unusual accuracy, but at the
same time is small and easy to use, and does not require referance to a separate Relative
Humidity Table as is the case with the ordinary wet and dry bulb thermometer. The wet bulb,
which is kept moist by a wick running into a water container, should be fanned before taking
a reading, as with the ordinary wet and dry bulb thermometer.
3d. HYGRODEIK. The hygrodeik is a special form of wet and dry thermometer which is so
arranged that reference to the relative humidity tables is not necessary. The hygrodeik is
constructed with a certain chart placed between the two thermometers. This chart is so drawn
that curved lines start from all points on each thermometer. Whenever it is necessary to
ascertain the percentage of relative humidity, the small sliding pointer is moved to the scale to
the left and set at the temperature on the scale corresponding to the reading of the wet bulb
thermometer. The index arm of the instrument is then swung to the right until the line meets
the curved line originating to the degree on the right hand scale corresponding to the reading
of the dry bulb thermometer. When the sliding pointer is directly over the intersection of these
two curved lines, the prevailing relative humidity will be shown by the location of the index
arm over the scale at the bottom of the instrument. Therefore the percentage of relative
humidity may be read directly.
3e. RECORDING HYGRODEIK (Wet and dry bulb type). A familiar form of recording
hygrometer is an instrument consisting of a combination of wet bulb thermometer and a dry
bulb thermometer. This instrument is constructed so that the respective temperatures
registered by each of these instruments will be recorded in the form of lines drawn by pen
points on a revolving chart which constitutes the face of the instrument. Therefore, there will
be a continuous record of the wet and dry bulb thermometer readings at all times. From these
two readings as recorded on the chart, the percentage of relative humidity can be readily
secured for any given time. In this way, the baker will have a permanent record of existing
relative humidity at the location of the recording hygrometer.
THIS COMPLETES THE INFORMATION ON TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: MATERIAL ON TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY IS IN
PART DERIVED FROM THE FOLLOWING SOURCES:
1. A Treatise on Baking, Standard Brands, Inc.
2. Conversion Factors of the Industry, Research Department, Pillsbury Mills, Inc.
3. Notes taken during classes at the American Institute of Baking, and at the Oklahoma Tech
School of Baking.American Institute of Baking
18

19. PARTONE -(B)-MAINTENANCE ENGINEERING SCHOLARSHIPS BY
AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF BAKING
Maintenance Engineers are in high demand by the wholesale Baking Industry. So much so
that the Baking Industry will pay for your full tuition and offer you several jobs when you
graduate from AIB's 10-week Maintenance Engineering Course. Major Baking Companies
have plants in many locations across the United States. NOTE: No knowledge of baking is
required. The same program is offered to Military Veterans.
AIB's ten-week training program is designed to train Maintenance Engineers to meet
challanges created by the new-technologies and the global economy.
By concentrating on the basic maintenance engineering requirements such as electricity,
electronics, motor controls, programmable controllers, basic drafting, boilers, refrigeration,
one can become a professional maintenance engineer. All of AIB's training is focused on
practical application. Students learn how to use technical knowledge to improve plant
efficiency and safety. Troubleshooting and problem solving are stressed.
The ten-week course is now offered twice a year, in the fall and in the early spring.
Maintenance Engineering is a 440-hour curriculum that provides ample time for
individualized instruction to meet the special needs of students. Specific topics of the course
are: Math and physics; Pneumatics and Hydraulics; Low Pressure Boilers; Maintenance
Technology; Gear Drives, Belts, and Bearings; Basic Electricity; Basic Electronics; Motor
Controls; Programmable Controllers; Refrigeration; Safety and Computers.
Training takes place in first-class environment with modern classroom facilities and lab
equipped with up-to-date technical equipment. Excellent housing facilities, dormitories or
private apartments are available. Financial assistance and scholarships are available for self-
sponsored students. This program is VA approved.
PART TWO- (A) --principles of bread production Including the Latest Developments in
Dough Processing Procedures and Dough Processing Equipment
INTRODUCTION.Bread production operations must be carefully planned, for once
ingredient mixing has begun, the process cannot be interrupted without serious damage to the
baked product. Dough formulas and dough schedules are determined in advance and followed
as closely as possible. In preparation of the production schedule, the previous day's schedule
is used as a guide. Formulas must be constructed so that only enough dough is mixed to fill
the oven to capacity. There are seven major steps involved in the production of bread using
the conventional method of bread production. The continuous mixing method will be
discussed briefly.
NOTE: PART THREE which will follow will discuss and demonstrate bread formula
construction and the exact amount of each ingredient to use in a dough batch. Large scale
production of bread ( using mechanical equipment ) is covered in PART TWELVE- BREAD
BAKING DEMONSTRATIONS.
Bakery-Net Bakery-Net has a list of Bakery Equipment Manufacturers and Baking Ingredient
Suppliers.
19

20. Variety breads is covered in PART FOUR, Sweet Dough and Danish Pastries is covered in
PART FIVE, Demonstrations on make-up of Sweet Rolls is in PART SIX, Demonstration on
make-up of Danish Pastries is in PART SEVEN, FRENCH PASTRIES is covered in PART
EIGHT, CAKES are covered in PART TEN, and DINNER ROLLS including demonstration
of make-up are covered in PART ELEVEN.
PREPARATION OF INGREDIENTS:
STEP 1. The first step in preparation for mixing is assembling and weighing the ingredients.
Some ingredients require special preparation. The yeast, whether compressed or dry must be
be suspended in water in according to manufacturer's instructions. NOTE: NEVER
SUSPEND DRY YEAST IN COLD WATER. If you do, reducing agents contained in the
yeast will be released into the dough which will weaken the gluten. Some, but not all bakers
put Compressed Yeast directly into the dough without suspending it in water, especially when
using some of the new types of yeast.
The temperature of the water is important in controllig dough temperature. If mechanical
refrigeration equipment is not available to chill the ingredient water, ice may be required.
Most bakeries are equipped with mixing machines that circulate chilled water or refrigants
through coils between the walls of the mixing bowl. In that case ice would not be required.
However, if ice is required, the procedure for determining how much ice to use will be
demonstrated following the demonstration on how to determine the required water
temperature to get the dough out of the mixer at the proper temperature. Following are the
procedures used to determine the required water temperature:
To control the dough temperature during mixing, the following factors must be known and
applied:
A. Desired dough temperature at completion of mixing.
B. In this example,desired dough temperature is 80 degrees F.
C. Available water temperature.
D. Pounds of water in the formula.
E. Number of BTU's of heat that one pound of ice removes from it's surrounding area when it
melts from a solid to a liquid ( 144 BTU's )
F. Temperature of mixing room.
G. Temperature of flour.
H. FRICTION FACTOR. This is the amount of heat that is created during the mixing process.
At the end of this lesson, the procedure for computing the Friction Factor of a mixing
machine will be demonstrated.
Assuming the following conditions exist, calculate the required water temperature, pounds of
ice to use when required, and pounds of water to be subtracted from the formula, depending
upon how many pounds of ice will be required.
A. Mixing room temperature= 85 degrees F.
20

21. B. Flour temperature= 82 degrees F.
C. Friction Factor= 30 degrees F. for this example.
Temperature of available water= 70 degrees F.
PROCEED AS FOLLOWS
A. Add 85 plus 82 plus 30 which equals 197.
B. Multiply desired dough temperature which is 80 times 3 = 240 .
C. Subtract 197 from 240 which equals 43 degrees which is the temperature that the water
needs to be for the dough to come out of the mixer at 80 degrees F.
To determine how much ice is required when the water is warmer than the required 43
degrees F. proceed as follows:
A. Subtract 43 degrees which is the desired water temperature from 70 degrees which is the
temperature of the water available. The answer is 27 degrees which is the number of BTU's of
heat that must be removed from each pound of water in the formula. NOTE: ONE OUUND
OF ICE WILL REMOVE 144 BTU"s OF HEAT FROM ONE POUND OF WATER.B.
Multiply 27 degrees times 379.7 (the total number of pounds of water in the formula). The
answer is10,251.9 (the total number of BTU's to remove from the water).
C. Divide 10,251.9, the total number of BTU's to remove by 144, the number of BTU's that
one pound of ice removes. The answer is 71.2 pounds of ice to use.
D. Subtract 71.2 pounds of ice from the number of pounds of water called for in the formula.
Therefore, 308.5 pounds of water plus 71.2 pounds of ice equals 379.7 pounds of liquid called
for in the formula.
E. Therefore, in this situation, the dough will come out of the mexer at 80 degrees F.
COMPUTATION OF FRICTION FACTOR. NOTE: THE FACTOR VARIES WITH
DIFFERENT MIXING MACHINES, AND MIXING TIMES. THE FASTER THE MIXING
MACHINE OPERATES, AND THE LONGER THE MIXING TIMES THE GREATER
WILL BE THE FRICTION FACTOR. THEREFORE, THE FRICTION FACTOR WILL
NEED TO BE DETERMINED WHEN A DIFFERENT MACHINE OR DIFFERENT
MIXING TIME IS USED.
TO DETERMINE THE FRICTION FACTOR FOR A PARTICULAR MACHINE AND
MIXING TIME, A TEST DOUGH MUST BE RUN. ASSUMING THE FOLLOWING
CONDITIONS EXIST PROCEED AS FOLLOWS:
A. Room temperature is 85 degrees F.
B. Flour temperature is 82 degrees F.
C. Temperature of water used was 43 degrees F.
21

22. D. The total of the 3 factors above is 210. Note: In this example, the bakery is equipped with a
water chilling machine, so no ice will be required.
We will assume that the dough came out of the machine at 80 degrees F. Proceed as follows:
E. Subtract 210 from 240. The answer is 30 which is the friction factor that must be used
when this particular machine and particular mixing time is used.
MIXING THE DOUGH.-NOTE: ALL PRODUCTION PRECEDURES DISCUSSED IN
THIS PART ARE DEMONSTRATED IN THE PART TITLED "BREAD BAKING
DEMONSTRATIONS"
STEP 2. The purpose of mixing the dough is to distribute the yeast cells throughout the
dough, distribute food for the yeast, and to form and develop the gluten. Gluten is formed
when the two proteins of the flour, gliadin and glutenen come in contact with water. The time
required to develop the gluten depends on the strength of the flour, and the speed of the
machine. Generally speaking, the stronger the flour proteins the longer it takes to develope the
gluten and the faster the machine, the shorter the mixing time. An experienced baker can
easily determine when the gluten has been fully developed by taking a small piece of dough
out of the mixer and stretching the dough between the fingers. NOTE: THIS IS
DEMONSTRATED IN PART TWELVE TITLED "BREAD BAKING
DEMONSTRATIONS". A properly developed dough will not be sticky and the dough will
stretch paper thin and becomes almost transparent to where one can almost see through it.
(See Demonstration Below).
Mixatron.Different types of flour differ greatly in their mixing requirements. Mixatrons which
were developed several years ago are still useful in asisting the mixer operator in determining
when the dough has been mixed to its optimum gluten development.
22

23. Mixer operator checking to determine when the gluten has beenfully developed during
mixing.
MIXING METHODS
STEP 2a. In small and medium size bakeries, the two methods used to mix doughs are the
Straight Dough Method and the Sponge and Dough Method. Most of the large commercial
wholesale bakeries use the Continuous Mixing Method which will be discussed in a later
paragraph.
STEP 2b. STRAIGHT DOUGH METHOD. In the straight dough method of mixing all
dough ingredients are mixed at one time, and prepared fpr a single fermentation process.
Generally, the fermentation time for the straight doughs will vary from 2-1/2 hours to 3 hours.
These doughs are also punched after about 80 percent of the fermentation time has elapsed
and given an additional 20 percent fermentation before make-up. This is covered in more
detail in a later paragraph. Doughs produced by this method results in breads with course
grain and texture and the crumb is not as soft as that produced by other methods. The baked
loaf will not have as much volume as one made with the Sponge and Dough Method. The
Straight Dough Method is demonstrated in PART TWELVE titled "BREAD BAKING
DEMONSTRATIONS".
23

24. STEP 2c. SPONGE AND DOUGH METHOD. In the Sponge and Dough Method, there are
two mixing periods and two fermentation periods. Part of the formula ingredients are mixed
and allowed to ferment for 4 to 6 hours. How to determine the length of the fermentation of
sponges is covered in a later paragraph. This is called the sponge. After the fermentation
process is completed, the second part is called the Dough. Basically, the fermented sponge is
thrown back into the mixer and the ingredients for the second part are added. The fermented
sponge and all the second ingredients are mixed together to form the dough. After the gluten
has been fully developed, the dough is dumped into a stainless steel dough trough and given a
second fermentation time. As compared to the sponge, the fermentation time of the dough is
very short (15 to 20 minutes).
Dough Transfer Systems. There are many methods used to transfer doughs from one point to
another. Briefly they are:
1. Cutting the dough in large pieces by hand and transfering it from the dough trough to the
mixing machine or to the divider..
2. By Locating the mixer on the second floor, the dough is dumped from the dough trough
through a hole in the floor into the divider hopper.
3. Dough Trough Hoists have been designed to lift dough troughs filled with fermented
sponges to be returned to the mixer to be mixed into doughs. They are also designed to lift
remixed doughs to be dumped into the divider hopper.
4. Other methods available are, Conveyor Transfer Systems, Dough Pumps, and Rotary
Dough Feeders or Chunkers. Some doughs such as Frozen Doughs, Many Bread Doughs and
Stiff Doughs are not suitable to be transferred by the Dough Pump. One reason why it is not
suitable for some types of doughs is because it creates heat during the transfer process.
CONTINUOUS MIXING METHOD
The Continuous Mixing Method is very popular among large commercial bakeries. The bread
produced by this method has very fine tight grain similar to the grain of cake. The Continuous
Bread Making System uses the following basic elements:
A liquid ferment, brew or liquid sponge is prepared and allowed to ferment in stainless steel
tanks under controlled temperature conditions for several hours. The fermented mixtures are
cooled by the use of refrigerated coils between the walls of the tanks until ready to be used.
This process eliminates setting individual sponges and doughs, and the need for dough
troughs and large fermentation rooms. A method of bringing together continuosly all the
ingredients in the right proportion for the dough. After going through the developer, what
happens next varies with different bakeries. Some bakeries run the dough through
conventional make-up equipment, rather than extruding the dough directly into the pan as was
done a few years ago, because it is claimed that a better quality loaf results.
FERMENTATION EXPLAINED
STEP 3. Fermentation starts immediately after the yeast is put into the mixture. However, the
fermentation period is considered to begin when the sponge or dough is dumped out of the
mixer into the dough trough and rolled into the fermentation room which is maintained at a
temperature of 80 degrees F. and 75 percent relative humidity. The chemical changes that
occur continues until the yeast is killed by the heat of the oven. This is when the internal
24

25. temperature reaches about 140 degrees F. The fermentation period is considered to end when
the dough goes to the divider to be divided into individual loaf pieces (loaves).
STEP 3a. Leavening the dough is one of the essential things that take place during
fermentation. Carbon dioxide gas is produced and held by the gluten network. This causes the
whole dough mass to expand which helps to condition the gluten as was mentioned
previously.
STEP 3b. Alcoholic fermentation is the most desirable type of fermentation. To insure that
this type of fermentation predominates, the dough should come out of the mixer between 78
degrees F. and 82 degrees F. and kept in an 80 degree F. fermentation room with 75 percent
relative humidity. NOTE: The instrument used to determine percent relative humidity is
called a Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometer and a Relative Humidity Table can be found in
PART 1A-TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY. Due to chemical changes that take place
during fermentation , the sponge or dough will increase to about 85 degrees F. and 90 degrees
F. which is still in the range of alcoholic fermentation. In the alcoholic range, a small amount
of acetic acid and lactic is produced which is beneficial. However, at higher temperatures a lot
more of these acids are produced along with butyric acid which is very undesirable. This
results in a poor quality product having a strong undesirable taste and flavor. The crust will
have a pale straw color, the loaf will have poor symmetry of form and a very open grain. The
crumb will have a yellowish color rather than a bright white color.
STEP 3c. Fermentatiopn of Straight Doughs. Because fermentation time before the punch
varies, doughs must be tested at different intervals. The time to punch is determined by
inserting the hand as far as the wrist gently into the dough and observing the dough closely
when the hand is withdrawn. When the proper fermentation time has been reached, the dough
will neither collapse nor spring back, but will sink slightly around the depression. NOTE:
This is demonstrated in PART TWELVE titled "BREAD BAKING DEMONSTRATIONS".
STEP 3d. Punching the dough. When the proper time for punching has arrived, use both
hands and punch down through the center from one end of the dough trough to the other.
Then with both hands, grasp one side of the dough and pull on top. Repeat the operation,
folding the oposite side of the dough. Punching equalizes the temperature of the dough, the
gluten has been relaxed after it's constant tension during the period of expansion. This helps to
strengthen and further develop the gluten. This is also demonstrated in PART TWELVE titled
"Bread Baking Demonstrations:.
STEP 3e. Fermentation time after the punch. Time after punch can be determined accurately
by using fermentation ratios. For example, if a dough ferments for 2 hours before the punch
and a generally used 80/20 fermentation ratio is used, the time after the punch can be
determined by dividing 120 minutes by 80 perecent, (120/80) equals 150 minutes which
represents 100 percent of the time. Subtract 120 minutes which equals 80 percent of the time
from150 minutes which represents 100 percent of the fermentation time (150-120=30 minutes
(fermentation time remaining after the punch). NOTE: AS YOU KNOW WHEN WORKING
WITH PERCENTAGES, THE DECIMAL MUST BE MOVED TWO PLACES TO THE
LEFT.
Note: Following are two Fermentation Ratio Diagrams, one for an 80/20 Fermentation Ratio
and one for a 70/30 Fermentation Ratio. One of the diagrams, the 80/20 diagram gives you a
picture of the above calculations. The other diagram gives you a picture of the 70/30
Fermentation Ratio if it was used. Different Fermentation Ratios may need to be used
depending on the strength of the flour or for example if Mineral Yeast Food or other
25

26. ingredients that has an effect on the gluten are used in the formula. The 80/20 Fermentation
Ratio would be used for an average flour. If a stronger flour is used, then the 70/30
Fermentation Ratio may produce better results.
One Fermentation Ratio Diagram showing the 80/20 Fermentation Ratio and the other
diagram shows the 70/30 Fermentation Ratio.
STEP 3f. Fermentation of the sponge. Fermentation time for sponges vary from 4 to 6 hours
depending upon the strength of the proteins of the flour, temperature of the sponge, and the
amount of yeast used. Basically the same procedure is used to determine fermentation time of
the sponge as for straight doughs, with the exception that the sponge is not punched, but
observation is made to determine when the sponge begins to recede slightly. This is normally
known as the breaking point of the sponge. Another method used by some bakers is to
observe when the sponge become wavy on top. When this occurs, this represents 80 percent
of the total fermentation time. The remaining 20 percent fermentation time is calculated the
same way as was used to determine time after the punch for straight doughs.
MAKE-UP CONSISTS OF DIVIDING, ROUNDING, INTERMEDIATE PROOFING,
MOLDING AND PANNING. NOTE: All of the steps are demonstrated in PART TWELVE
titled 'BREAD BAKING DEMONSTRATIONS.
NOTE: Major improvements have been made in recent years on Make-Up Equipment due to
the development of Dough Conditioners , Oxidation Agents and Enzymes. The baker is able
toproduce more extensible doughs by fully developing them in the mixer. Dough Dividers
have been developed which punishes the dough a great deal less than those used in the past.
Also,Belt Rounders are capable of rounding and sealing the dough without the use of dusting
26

27. flour.The most signifiant new development is in Intermediate Proofing where the proofing
time hasbeen reduced to three minutes or less due to development of new ingredients and
Extrusion Dividers. The information below explains Make-Up Procedures used prior to the
new development and which are still being used by many bakeries .
STEP 4a. Dividing and scaling consists of cutting the dough (by hand or machinery) into loaf
size pieces and weighing the pieces to insure uniformity. Because of the average loss of about
12 percent during make-up, proofing, baking and cooling, this loss must be taken into
account. To produce a loaf of bread weighing 1 pound (16 ouncea) the dough piece must be
scaled about 18 ounces.
STEP4a(1). Rounding is the process of rounding the scaled pieces of dough into a round ball
with smooth unbroken skin over it's entire surface. The unbroken skin will retain the gas
generated within the dough piece during the intermediate proofing period.
STEP4a(2). Intermediate proofing is the process of giving the rounded dough pieces a short
rest period (about 12 to 15 minutes) to recover from the effects of the dividing and rounding
machine. The rest period allows the dough to relax after undergoing a great deal of
punishment while being forced under a lot of pressure while being extruded from the divider
pockets. Without the rest period the dough would be tight and rubbery and would not go
through the molder sheeting rollers without tearing. The intermediate proofing machine has
small pockets or baskets covered with canvas traveling within an enclosed draft free area.
STEP 4a(3). MOLDING. Upon completion of the intermediate proofing period, the dough
pieces are molded into the shape desired. In the molder the dough passes through three
distinct stages. Flattening is done in the head rollers of the molder. Second, the sheeting
rollers sheet the dough into a flat piece of dough and the curling rollers and thread rollers twirl
each piece of sheeted dough and give it a cylindrical shape. Next, the drum or pressure plate
rolls and seals the loaf into it's final form. Conventional molders curl the dough in the same
direction that it was sheeted. It is difficult to produce bread with a close uniform grain with
this type of molder. For this reason some bakers twist two pieces of dough together or use
cross grain molders. Cross grain molders curl the dough in the opposite direction from which
it was sheeted. That is, the dough is caused to turn right or left after it has been sheeted and is
then curled. This is called cross grain molding. Cross grain molding and twisting two pieces
of dough together prior to putting them into the baking pan both produces loaves with a close
smooth grain and texture.
STEP 4a(5). Pan proofing is the process of rolling the panned and racked molded dough
pieces quickly into the dough proofing cabinet which is well insulated and maintained at a
temperature of 95 degrees F. to 98 degrees F. and a relative humidity of 85 percent. NOTE: In
recent years, bakers have increased the temperature of proof boxes to110-120 degrees F. with
a relative humidity of 90 percent. Under these conditions the loaves are allowed to proof for
about 45 to 60 minutes. At the end of the proofing period, they double in size.
STEP 5. Baking the bread. note: This is demonstrated in PART TWELVE titled "BREAD
BAKING DEMONSTRATIONS
At the end of the pan proofing period, the loaves are loaded quickly, but carefully into the
oven for baking. In large commercial bakeries the panned loaves are carried automatically on
conveyor belts and loaded automatically into the oven. Oven temperatures vary from about
425 degrees F. to 450 degrees F. During the first minutes of the baking process the carbon
dioxide gas within the dough expands. This expansion causes a very rapid rise of the dough
27

28. known as ovenspring. Fermentation is more vigorous and more rapid at this stage than at any
previous stage. When the inside temperature of the loaf reaches 140 degrees F. the yeast is
killed and fermentation ceases. Alcohol produced during fermentation evaporates in the form
of vapor. After the ovenspring the pliability of the dough gradually lessons and the dough
becomes set and slowly change to bread. Some of the moisture evaporates, the starch becomes
gelatinized and more digestible, the gluten and other proteins become coagulated. After the
loaf sets, the intense heat dries out the part exposed to the air and causes a crust to form. The
golden brown color of the crust is the result of chemical changes in the starch, sugar and milk
known as a browning reaction (Mailard reaction) also known as carmelization.
Within the loaf, the crumb near the crust is subjected to a temoerature as high as 300 degrees
F. The temperature gradually decreases towards the center of the loaf at which point it reaches
about 212 degrees F. the same temperature at which water boils at sea level. At this
temperature the gluten becomes stiff enough to give the loaf permanent form and retain it's
structure. When the baking process is complete, the loaves are unloaded manually or
automatically and either dumped on cooling racks or travel on enclosed air conditioned
conveyor belts to the cooling area. The loaves are allowed to cool for about 1 hour at which
point the internal temperature of the loaf drops to about 100 degrees F. and is ready to be
sliced and wrapped or bagged.
STEP 6. Slicing and packaging. Automatic slicing and wrapping or bagging machines and
tying machines completes the seven major steps in bread production. The bread is ready to be
shipped to grocery stores and other food establishments to be consumed by the public.
NOTE: The next procedure to be covered is PART THREE-BREAD FORMULAS AND
BREAD FORMULA COMPUTATIONS, and then PART FOUR-VARIETY BREADS.
PART FIVE-BASIC SWEET DOUGH AND DANISH PASTRY DOUGHS FOLLOWS.
PART SIX AND PART SEVEN will include photographs of Willie Prejean demonstrating
make-up procedures fpr Sweet Rolls, Danish Rolls and Danish Coffee Cakes. PART EIGHT
covers FRENCH PASTRIES, CREAM PUFFS & ECLAIRS. Make up demonstrations are
demonstrated.
28

29. Part Three - Bread Formulas and Bread Formula Construction
INTRODUCTION
THERE HAVE BEEN A GREAT DEAL OF PROGRESS IN THE METHOD USEDTO
CONSTRUCT BREAD FORMULAS. MANY YEARS AGO BREAD FORMULAS
WEREEXPRESSED IN PAIL, BUCKET OR GALLON METHOD. TODAY, FORMULAS
AREEXPRESSED IN PERCENTAGES, AND IS REFERRED TO AS THE BAKER'S
PERCENTAGEMETHOD. THEN THE FORMULA IS CONVERTED TO POUNDS AND
OUNCES. THEMETHOD USED TO ACCOMPLISH THIS WILL BE DEMONSRTATED.
WHEN EXPRESSINGFORMULAS IN THE PERCENTAGE SYSTEM, 100 POUNDS OF
FLOUR ALWAYSREPRESENT 100 PERCENT. PERCENTAGES OF ALL THE OTHER
INGREDIENTSARE BASED ON THE FLOUR. ALTHOUGH IT IS CONFUSING TO
MOST PEOPLE,IT IS A VERY ACCURATE METHOD AS YOU WILL SEE. WITH THIS
METHODTHE AMOUNT OF INGREDIENT NECESSARY TO PRODUCE A GIVEN
AMOUNT OFBREAD CAN BE CALCULATED RIGHT DOWN TO POUNDS AND
FRACTIONS OFOUNCES. THE FOLLOWING IS AN EXAMPLE OF A WHITE BREAD
FORMULA USINGTHE BAKER'S PERCENTAGE METHOD:
INGREDIENT PERCENT
Bread flour 100Water, variable 60Yeast, compressed
2Salt 2Sugar 5Shortening
5Milk, dry, nonfat 6
------------TOTAL FORMULA PERCENT 180
Construction of a bread formula to determine pounds and ouncesof each ingredient to use to
produce 500 pounds of bread. Note:Dough losses weight by giving off gasses and moisture
and by asmall amount of dough that sticks to the mixer. This amount ofloss averages about 2
percent. Dough also losses weight duringthe proofing, baking and cooling. This loss usually
average about11 percent. These losses must be taken into consideration whenconstructing a
bread formula. The total percentage loss equals13 percent.
The following example explains how to take the above losses intoconsideration when
determining the exact weight of each ingredientto use in the formula to produce a certain
amount of bread:
1. Pounds of bread required=500 pounds.
2. 100% = ( Total percentage of ingredients to use to produce500 pounds of bread ).
3 Total loss = 13 %.
a. 100% - 13% = 87% after loss. This is the net percentage ofbread ( 500 ) that can be roduced
from 100% of ingredients.
b. To find how much 100% ingredients equals, it is necessary todivide 500 pounds of baked
bread by 87%. This is referred to asthe amount of dough required to produce 500 pounds of
bread. Note:Remember that when using percentages, you must move the decimalpoint two
points to the left.
Example:
c. 500 pounds of bread required divided by .87= 574.71 poundsof ingredients to use in the
formula.
d. 574.71 pounds of ingredients divided by the total formula percent( 180% ) =319.28 pounds
29

30. of flour to use.
e. Since all ingredients in the formula are based on the flour,the percent of each ingredient is
multiplied times the poundsof flour in the formula.
Example:
Ingredient PoundsFlour ( 100% ) =
319.28Water ( 60% times 319.93 pounds of flour ) = 191.57Yeast ( 2% times 319.93 ) =
6.40SALT ( 2% times 319.93 ) = 6.40Sugar ( 5% times 319.93 ) =
16.00Shortening ( 5 % times 319.93 ) = 16.00 Milk, dry
nonfat ( 6 % times 319.93 ) = 19.20 -----------------
Total pounds of ingredients = 574.71
Note: The above computations shows that the baker's method offormula construction is a very
accurate method. The 574.71 totalpounds is easily converted to pounds and ounces as follows:
The.71 pounds is converted to ounces by multiplying the .71 times16 ( 16 ounces in a pound )
=11.36 ounces . To change .36 of anounce to fractions of an ounce multiply the .36 times 16 =
53/4ounces. Total pounds of ingredients = 574 lbs 113/4 ounces.
Note: For all practical purposes, the pounds of flour would berounded off to 575 pounds. The
191.57 pounds of water would alsobe rounded off to an even 191 or 192 pounds. All other
ingredientshowever would be scaled to the closest fraction of an ounce.
Note: The above formula would be used as it is in the straightdough method of mixing. It can
easily be converted to the sponge-and-doughmethod.
Converting the straight dough formula to a sponge-and-dough formula.First the baker must
decide what percentage of the flour in thestraight dough formula will go into the sponge
dough formula.This varies with the strength of the flour and with a flour havinga relatively
high protein content. Also if the protein is of verygood quality, 75% of the formula flour
would go into the sponge,and 25% would go into the dough. The amount varies depending
onseveral factors, and through experience, the baker can determinewhat percentages produce
the best results. Other percentage ratioscan be used such as 60/40,70/30, etc. The bakers
percentage systemof formula computation applies as well to the sponge and doughmethod as
it does to the straight dough method. In the followingexample, a 70/30 ratio will be used.
Proceed as follows:
SpongeIngredients PercentageFlour 70% ( based on the total
flour in the formula )Water, variable 60% ( based on the sponge flour only )Yeast,
compressed 2% ( based on the total flour of sponge and dough ) DoughFlour
30 ( based on total flour in the formula)Water, variable 60 ( based on dough
flour only )Salt 2 ( based on total flour in the formula )Sugar
5 ( based on total flour in the formula )Shortening 5 ( based on total flour in
the formula )Milk, dry nonfat 6 ( based on total flour in the formula )
Note: To simplify things, none of the optional ingredients wereused in the demonstration. If
they were used, the mineral yeastfood and the emulsifier would have gone in the sponge and
themold inhibitor would have gone in the dough. The malt cereal sirupusually goes into the
sponge.
30

31. Note: At this time it is a good idea to mention why water is alwayslisted as variable in bread
formulas. That is because no two flourhas the same absorption quality. Only experience will
determinethis. This usually changes each time a new shipment of flour isreceived.
CONVERTING THE ABOVE STRAIGHT DOUGH FORMULA FOR PRODUCING
574.71POUNDS OF DOUGH TO THE SPONGE-AND-DOUGH METHOD WILL BE
DEMONSTRATEDNEXT. PROCEED AS FOLLOWS:
Sponge Ingredients Ingredients Percentage Weight of Flour
Weight of IngredientsFlour 70% times 319.28 = 223.49 # of flour
Water 60% times 223.45 = 134.09 # of Water
Yeast, compressed 2% times 319.28 = 6.40 # of YeastTotal weight of
ingredients going into the sponge = 363.98 pounds Dough
Ingredients Ingredients Percentage Weight of Flour Weight of ingredientsFlour
30 % times 319. 28 = 95.78 # of FlourWater 60 % times 95.78 =
57.47 # of WaterSalt 2% times 319.28 = 6.40 # of SaltSugar
5% times 319.28 = 16.00 # of SugarShortening 5% times 319.28 =
16.00 # of Short.Milk, non fat dry 6% times 319.28 = 19.20 # of Milk
--------------------Total weight of ingredients going into the dough = 210.85
poundsTotal weight of ingredients going into the sponge = 363.98 poundsTotal weight of
ingredients going into the dough = 210.85 poundsTotal weight of ingredients in sponge
and dough = 574.77 pounds
Note: Due to rounding off of fractions, the formula is off only0.06 of an ounce which is less
than one ounce.
Mixing the sponge. Prepare the ingredients for the sponge in accordancewith information
contained in Part Two, Principles of Bread Production.
1. Temper the water.
2. Mix the sponge only about 3 or 4 minutes because full glutendevelopment is not required at
this time.
3. Have the sponge come out of the mixer at 76 degrees F. ratherthan 80 degrees F for the
dough. Sponges ferment for several hours,therefore the temperature rise during fermentation
will remainin the alcoholic fermentation range.
Note: When the sponge is returned to the mixer after it has gonethrough the fermentation
stage, to be remixed with the dough ingredients,the dough must be mixed until the gluten has
been fully developed( as explained in Part Two, Principles of Bread Production ).The dough
temperature should be about 80 degrees F when it comesout of the mixer.
This completes part three on Bread Formulas and Bread FormulaConstruction. Today people
are demanding a variety in foods, part four- Variety Breads will help you to meet this
demand. Part five- Basic sweet dough and Danish pastries. Part sixand part seven will include
photographsof Willie Prejean demonstrating make-up procedures for sweet rolls,Danish
pastries and coffee cakes.
31

32. PART FOUR - VARIETY BREADS
INTRODUCTION
It's BEEN SAID THAT VARIETY IS THE SPICE OF LIFE. THEREFORE,VARIETY
BREADS PLAY A MAJOR ROLE IN THE ENJOYMENT OF ANY MEAL.FOLLOWING
ARE EXAMPLES OF FORMULAS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF VARIETYBREADS
AND A BRIEF DISCRIPTION OF PRODUCTION PROCEDURES.
NOTE: Although Artesian Breads which are mostly made by hand in retail shops, are not
covered, they are becoming very popular in some parts of the country. Bakery Equipment
Manufacturers are beginning to manufacture the specialized equipment necessary to produce
this type of bread in large quqntities.
RAISIN BREAD FORMULA IN BAKER's PERCENTAGES
Ingredients Percent
Flour,bread 100
Water, variable 65
Yeast, compressed 4
Salt 2
Sugar 6
Shortening 5
Milk,dry nonfat 6
Raisins 60
Cinnamon ground 0.05
Mineral yeast food 0.25
Emulsifier ( bread softener ) 0.25
There is a slight difference in the mixing procedure as comparedto white bread doughs in that
the raisins are not added untilthe gluten has been fully developed. Once the gluten has
beenfully developed, the raisins are added, and then the dough ismixed in slow speed in order
to keep from crushing the raisins.Mix only long enough to distribute the raisins throughout
thedough. Also, the raisins can be soaked for a few minutes and thendrained before being
added to the dough.
Fermentation, dividing, rounding, intermediate proofing, molding,panning, proofing, baking
and cooling are the same as for whitebread doughs. "Note" The reason for using a larger
percentageof water in the formula is because raisins absorb water and ifwater is not increased
slightly, the dough would be too stiffmaking it difficult to run through the machinery.
RYE BREAD FORMULA IN BAKER's PERCENTAGES
Ingredients Percent
Flour, rye 30
Flour, clear grade, wheat 70
Water, variable 58
Yeast, compressed 2
Salt 2
Sugar 2
32

33. Shortening 2
Mineral yeast food 0.25
Emulsifier ( bread softener ) 0.25
Caraway seeds ( whole or ground ) 0.25
Rye flavor 0.25
Note: Water is variable in the formula because rye flour absorbsconsiderably more water than
wheat flour, darker rye flours absorbmore water than lighter rye flours, and if making pan
type ryebread, more water is used than for hearth type bread.
Mixing the rye dough. Rye dough should be mixed slightly stifferthan white bread. Rye
doughs also produce best results if mixedin slow speed to keep from over mixing the dough.
Remember, ryeflour does not have gluten forming properties, so there is lessgluten to
develop. Rye doughs produce better quality bread ifdeveloped by natural hydration rather than
by high speed mixing.The doughs should be mixed slightly cooler than white bread (76°F ).
Either the straight dough method or the sponge-and-doughmethod of mixing can be used
Fermentation of rye doughs. Rye flour is more fermentative thanwheat flour because rye flour
contains a larger percentage ofnatural sugars, diastase and protease enzymes and is
slightlyhigher in natural acidity than wheat flour, all of which havean acceleration effect on
gas production and gas retention. Therefore,rye doughs require less fermentation time than
doughs containingonly wheat flour. Using the fermentation ratio as discussed earlieris the best
way to determine how long to ferment the dough.
Make up of dough. Dividing, rounding and intermediate proofingare basically the same as for
white bread. Rye bread may be bakedin regular round top bread pans, on sheet pans or
directly onthe hearth of the oven. If baked on sheet pans or on the hearth,the dough must be
mixed stiffer than if baked in regular breadpans so the loaf will keep its shape without
flattening out. Lessproof is also required.
Proofing rye bread doughs. Hearth type rye bread is generallyproofed on special wooden
boards which have had corn meal sprinkledonto them. When the proofing period is
completed, the loaves arewashed with corn starch wash or egg wash and a sharp object
aboutthe size of a pencil is punched about half way through the loafabout two inches apart the
full length of the loaf. Another methodis to use a very sharp knife and making several
diagonal shallowcuts along the top of the loaf. The purpose of punching (docking) or cutting
the loaf before baking is to prevent the loaf fromhaving wild cracks. Special hearth type pans
are available tospeed up the operation. They are made from a fairly thick metalwhich looks
like a screen. When this type of pan is used, cornmeal is not required.
33

34. The perforated pan is used to bake French and Rye breads when theoven doesn't have a
suitable hearth on which to bake the bread.
Baking the bread. If low pressure ( moist ) steam is availablethe steam is injected into the
oven just prior to loading theloaves into the oven and left on until the loaves begin to
color.The steam is then turned off. Steam produces a shiny glossy crustcolor and helps to
prevent wild breaks in the loaves. Note: Lowpressure ( moist ) steam is steam under 15
pounds per square inch.High pressure steam is dry steam and would be of no benefit.
Cooling, slicing and packaging. Baked rye breads are handled thesame as other types of
breads
FRENCH BREAD FORMULA IN BAKER's PERCENTAGES
Ingredients Percent
Flour, clear, wheat 100
Water, variable 56
Yeast, compressed 2
Salt 2
Sugar 2
Shortening 2
Mineral yeast food 0.25
French breads and Vienna breads are made from a lean to semi-richformula. A strong clear
grade of wheat flour is recommended, buta good grade of patent flour can be used with good
results.
The interior of the French bread is more open and the textureusually has holes. Also, the crust
is more thoroughly baked thanpan bread which accounts in part to its finer taste and flavor.
The dough should be mixed slightly cooler (about 76 degrees F.)and the gluten should be
fully developed, but not over mixed. Itshould also be fully fermented but not over- fermented.
French bread is made up in a variety of shapes. The pointed orbaton shapes are the most
popular. Also, a small strip or strandof dough is stretched and placed on top of the full length
ofthe loaf. This eliminates having to dock or cut the top of theloaf after proofing. Loaves are
also made by braiding three ormore pieces of dough together. Proofing and baking are
34

35. carriedout in the same manner as for rye bread, with the exception thatpoppy seeds or sesame
seeds are sprinkled on top of the loavesafter they have been washed with cornstarch wash or
egg wash.French bread should be thoroughly baked to produce the desirablecharacteristics of
the crust. A plentiful supply of low pressuresteam should be used as in rye breads. French
bread can also bebaked on sheet pans, screens or directly on the hearth.
Just before the French loaves are loaded into the oven they are washed with corn starch wash
or egg wash and cut or docked. Sesameseeds or Poppy seeds can be sprinkled on the loaves at
this time. Lowpressure steam in injected into the oven and left on until the loavesbegin to
color. This produces a shiny crust color.
The perforated pan is used to bake French and Rye breads when theoven doesn't have a
suitable hearth on which to bake the bread.
SANDWICH (PULLMAN ) BREAD Sandwich ( Pullman ) bread is made usingthe standard
white, whole wheat or wheat bread formula, and mixed,fermented, made up, intermediate
proofed and molded the same.The molded pieces of dough are placed into long rectangular
pullmanpans having a cover which is placed on top. The covers can beput on as the molded
35

36. pieces of dough are placed in the pans orthey can be put on after proofing and just before the
pans areloaded into the oven. The loaves should be given a slightly shorterproof than regular
round top bread (about three fourth). Thisis to allow for the ovenspring which will cause the
dough to reachthe cover, forming a flat top rather than a round top. Avoid toomuch
underproof, because this will result in the dough not reachingthe cover and a rounded loaf
rather than a square loaf. Overproofingon the other hand causes the dough to push the cover
up slightlyand come out of the pan at the edges, resulting in poor symmetry.
The pullman pan is used to bake sandwich bread. The cover is puton just before the loaves are
loaded into the oven to form asquare loaf.
After the bread is fully baked, unload the oven, remove the cover,manually or mechanically.
Dump the bread out of the pan and placethe loaf upside down on cooling racks or conveyor
belt. Purposeof placing the baked loaf upside down is to allow the loaf toretain its square
shape. Cooling, slicing and packaging are handledthe same as other types of breads
POTATO BREAD FORMULA IN BAKER's PERCENTAGES
Ingredients Percent
Flour, bread, wheat 100
Potato Flour 3
Water, variable 65
Yeast, compressed 2
Salt 2
Sugar 6
Shortening 5
Milk, dry nonfat 6
Mineral yeast food 0.25
Mix the dough using the same procedures as for white pan bread.Potato Flour contain
approximately 75% carbohydratesoccurring in the form of gelatinized starch. This
gelatinizedstarch is readily converted to maltose sugar by the flour enzymediastase. This is
the reason why potatoes speed up the fermentationprocess. Potatoes also contain growth
36