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Principal of genetic engineering & its applications in
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4. Genetic engineering is a process that alters
the genetic make-up of an organism by
either removing or introducing DNA.
DNA can be introduced directly into the host
organism or into a cell that is
then fused or hybridized with the host.
(Hybridize: cross-breed (individuals of two
different species or varieties).
5. Genetic engineering, sometimes called
genetic modification, is the process of
altering the DNA in an organism’s genome.
This may mean changing one base pair (A-T
or C-G), deleting a whole region of DNA, or
introducing an additional copy of a gene.
It may also mean extracting DNA from
another organism’s genome and combining it
with the DNA of that individual.
6. Plants, animals or micro organisms that have
been changed through genetic engineering are
termed genetically modified organisms or GMOs.
If genetic material from another species is added
to the host, the resulting organism is
called transgenic.
If genetic material from the same species or a
species that can naturally breed with the host is
used the resulting organism is called cisgenic.
If genetic engineering is used to remove genetic
material from the target organism the resulting
organism is termed a knockout organism.
7.
8. Genetic engineering as the
direct manipulation of DNA by
humans outside breeding and
mutations has only existed
since the 1970s. The term
"genetic engineering" was first
coined by Jack Williamson in
his science
fiction novel Dragon's Island,
published in 1951.
9. The first genetically modified organism to be
created was a bacterium, in 1973.
In 1974, the same techniques were applied to
mice.
In 1994 the first genetically modified foods
were made available.
10. Genetic engineering has a number of useful
applications, including scientific research,
agriculture and technology.
In plants, genetic engineering has been applied
to improve the resilience(illness), nutritional
value and growth rate of crops such as potatoes,
tomatoes and rice.
In animals it has been used to develop sheep that
produce a therapeutic protein in their milk that
can be used to treat cystic fibrosis, or worms that
glow in the dark to allow scientists to learn more
about diseases such as Alzheimer’s.
11. Host organism : The organism that is modified in
a genetic engineering experiment is referred to
as the host. Depending on the goal of the genetic
engineering experiment, the host could range
from a bacterial cell to a plant or animal cell or
even a human cell.
Vector : The vehicle used to transfer genetic
material into a host organism is called a vector.
Scientists typically use plasmids, viruses,
cosmids(cos+plasmids), or artificial
chromosomes in genetic engineering
experiments.
12. To help explain the process of genetic engineering
lets take the example of insulin, a protein that helps
regulate the sugar levels in our blood.
Normally insulin is produced in the pancreas, but in
people with type 1 diabetes there is a problem with
insulin production.
People with diabetes therefore have to inject insulin
to control their blood sugar levels.
Genetic engineering has been used to produce a type
of insulin, very similar to our own, from yeast
and bacteria like E. coli.
This genetically modified insulin, ‘Humulin’ was
licensed for human use in 1982.
13. 1. A small piece of circular DNA called
a plasmid is extracted from the bacteria or
yeast cell.
2. A small section is then cut out of the circular
plasmid by restriction enzymes, ‘molecular
scissors’.
3. The gene for human insulin is inserted into
the gap in the plasmid. This plasmid is now
genetically modified.
4. The genetically modified plasmid is
introduced into a new bacteria or yeast cell.
14. 5. This cell then divides rapidly and starts making
insulin.
6. To create large amounts of the cells, the
genetically modified bacteria or yeast are grown
in large fermentation vessels that contain all the
nutrients they need. The more the cells divide,
the more insulin is produced.
7. When fermentation is complete, the mixture is
filtered to release the insulin.
8. The insulin is then purified and packaged into
bottles and insulin pens for distribution to
patients with diabetes.
15.
16. Genetic engineering has many applications to
medicine that include the manufacturing of
drugs, creation of model animals that mimic
human conditions and gene therapy. One of the
earliest uses of genetic engineering was to mass-
produce human insulin in bacteria. This
application has now been applied to, human
growth hormones, follistim (for treating
infertility), human albumin, monoclonal
antibody, antihemophilic factors, vaccines and
many other drugs.
17. Mouse hybridomas, cells fused together to
create monoclonal antibodies, have been
humanised through genetic engineering to
create human monoclonal
antibodies. Genetically engineered viruses are
being developed that can still confer
immunity, but lack the infectious sequences.
18. Genetic engineering is used to create animal
models of human diseases. They have been
used to study and model cancer
(oncomouse), obesity, heart disease,
diabetes, arthritis, substance abuse, anxiety,
aging and Parkinson disease.
19. Potential cures can be tested against these
mouse models. Also genetically modified pigs
have been bred with the aim of increasing the
success of pig to human organ transplantation.
Gene therapy is the genetic engineering of
humans, generally by replacing defective genes
with effective ones. Clinical
researchers using somatic gene therapy has been
conducted with several diseases, including X-
linked SCID, chronic lymphocytic
leukemia (CLL), and Parkinson's disease.
20. There are also concerns that the technology
could be used not just for treatment, but for
enhancement, modification or alteration of a
human beings' appearance, adaptability,
intelligence, character or behavior.
Right now, scientists are working on designing
foods that contain vaccines. Vaccines create
immunity, where our body recognizes a virus and
is able to fight it off without us getting sick.
Instead of getting injections, which can be tough
to transport and administer to remote countries
where disease is most prevalent, scientists want
to put it into their food.
21. One vaccine being studied is for hepatitis B.
Hepatitis B is a virus that affects the liver.
Tobacco plants have been engineered to
make part of the virus, which when consumed
by mice, causes immunity to the virus, just
like a vaccine.
22. Research being done on potatoes, show that genes
can be put successfully into potato plants that will
make vaccines against cholera, diarrhea and hepatitis
B. Scientists hope to be able to genetically engineer
bananas to have vaccines in them. The bananas
would then be grown in developing countries, where
disease such as cholera and diarrhea are very
prevalent. This would be a much cheaper alternative
to the wasteful process of a series of shots, throwing
away costly syringes after every injection. About 300
million people are carriers of hepatitis B, which can
cause liver failure and liver cancer. Diarrhea is a
common cause of death in young children.
23. Scientists are using a special type of cell, called a
stem cell, to grow new organs and replace
damaged tissue. Stem cells are cells that are
basically a blank slate and can become any other
type of cell. They can be found in both embryos
and adults. Scientists take the stem cells, put in
healthy, normal DNA, and then put them into
patients to replace their cells that have defective
DNA. Manipulating stem cells is probably one of
the most recognizable form of genetic
engineering in medicines.
24. In Alzheimer’s disease nerve
cells or neurons start to be die
off due to defective DNA. If
doctors grow new neurons
from patient’s stem cells, they
could replace the dying cells in
the brain with cell engineered
to have normal DNA curing the
disease.
25. The children with ADA (adenosine deaminase)
deficiency die before they are two years old.
Bone marrow cells of the child after removal
from the body were invaded by a harmless
virus into which ADA has been inserted.
Erythropoetin, a genetically engineered
hormone is used to stimulate the production
of red blood cells in people suffering from
severe anaemia.
26. Normally heart attack is caused when
coronary arteries are blocked by cholesterol
or blood clot. plasminogen is a substance
found in blood clots. Genetically engineered
tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) enzyme
dissolves blood clots in people who have
suffered heart attacks. The plasminogen
activator protein is produced by genetech
company which is so potent and specific that
it may even arrest a heart attack underway.
27. Cancer is a dreaded disease. Antibodies cloned
from a single source and targetted for a specific
antigen (monoclonal antibodies) have proved
very useful in cancer treatment. Monoclonal
antibodies have been target with radioactive
elements or cytotoxins like Ricin (Ricin is a highly
toxic, naturally occurring lectin produced in the
seeds of the castor oil plant, Ricinus communis.
A dose of purified ricin powder the size of a few
grains of table salt can kill an adult human). Such
antibodies seek cancer cells and specifically kill
them with their radioactivity or toxin.
