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Therapeutic applications of fenugreek
1.
Fenugreek
Review Therapeutic Applications of Fenugreek Ethan Basch, MD; Catherine Ulbricht, PharmD; Grace Kuo, PharmD; Philippe Szapary, MD; Michael Smith, MRPharmS, ND Abstract Active Constituents Fenugreek has a long history of medical uses The fraction of fenugreek that contains the in Ayurvedic and Chinese medicine, and has testa (i.e., the portion of the fenugreek seed with been used for numerous indications, including the peculiar smell and bitter taste) and the en- labor induction, aiding digestion, and as a dosperm of the defatted seeds (i.e., the “A” general tonic to improve metabolism and subfraction) are thought to be associated with the health. Preliminary animal and human trials hypoglycemic effects of fenugreek. These effects suggest possible hypoglycemic and have not been observed in studies of lipid ex- antihyperlipidemic properties of oral fenugreek tracts.4,5 It is possible fenugreek lowers lipids be- seed powder. cause it contains saponins that are transformed in (Altern Med Rev 2003;8(1):20-27) the gastrointestinal tract into sapogenins. Fenugreek seeds contain 50-percent fiber (30-per- Historical Uses of Fenugreek cent soluble fiber and 20-percent insoluble fiber) Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum that can slow the rate of postprandial glucose ab- L. Leguminosae) is one of the oldest medicinal sorption. This may be a secondary mechanism for plants, originating in India and Northern Africa. its hypoglycemic effect. An annual plant, fenugreek grows to an average height of two feet. The leaves and seeds, which Mechanisms of Action mature in long pods, are used to prepare extracts The hypoglycemic effects of fenugreek or powders for medicinal use. Applications of have been attributed to several mechanisms. fenugreek were documented in ancient Egypt, Sauvaire et al demonstrated in vitro the amino acid where it was used in incense and to embalm 4-hydroxyisoleucine in fenugreek seeds increased mummies. In modern Egypt, fenugreek is still used as a supplement in wheat and maize flour for Catherine Ulbricht, PharmD – Senior Attending Pharmacist, bread-making.1 In ancient Rome, fenugreek was Massachusetts General Hospital; Adjunct Clinical Professor, Massachusetts College of Pharmacy; Assistant Clinical Professor, purportedly used to aid labor and delivery. In Northeastern University; and Assistant Clinical Professor, University of Rhode Island. traditional Chinese medicine, fenugreek seeds are Correspondence address:1130 Massachusetts Avenue, used as a tonic, as well as a treatment for weakness Cambridge, MA 02138-5204; e-mail: kate@naturalstandard.com and edema of the legs.2 In India, fenugreek is Ethan Basch, MD – Editorial Board of Harvard Health Publications commonly consumed as a condiment2 and used and the Journal of Herbal Pharmacotherapy,; Chief Editor, Massachusetts General Hospital Primer of Outpatient Medicine; medicinally as a lactation stimulant.3 There are Advisory Boards, Integrative Medicine Alliance and CancerSource numerous other folkloric uses of fenugreek, Michael Smith, ND – Associate Dean for Research at the Canadian including the treatment of indigestion and College of Naturopathic Medicine; serves on National Advisory Group on Complementary and Alternative Medicine and HIV/AIDS baldness. The possible hypoglycemic and panel. antihyperlipidemic properties of oral fenugreek Philippe Szapary, MD – Assistant Professor of Medicine, Division of seed powder have been suggested by the results General Internal Medicine, University of Pennsylvania where he conducts clinical trials of CAM therapies in cardiovascular disease. of preliminary animal and human trials. Grace Kuo, PharmD – Faculty, Baylor College of Medicine; teaches at the University of Houston College of Pharmacy. Page 20 Alternative Medicine Review ◆ Volume 8, Number 1 ◆ 2003 Copyright©2003 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission
2.
Review
Fenugreek glucose-induced insulin release in human and rat blood glucose and insulin levels. This study sug- pancreatic islet cells.6 This amino acid appeared gests that fenugreek seed extract and diet/exercise to act only on pancreatic beta cells, since the lev- may be equally effective strategies for attaining els of somatostatin and glucagon were not altered. glycemic control in type 2 diabetes. However, the In human studies, fenugreek reduced the area un- trial may have been too small or brief to detect der the plasma glucose curve and increased the significant mean differences between groups. In number of insulin receptors, although the mecha- addition, it is not clear if mean glucose values nism for this effect is unclear. 7 In humans, would have normalized without intervention, and fenugreek seeds exert hypoglycemic effects by design and methods were not well described, stimulating glucose-dependent insulin secretion which limits the clinical relevance of these results. from pancreatic beta cells,8 as well as by inhibit- Raghuram et al reported the results of a ing the activities of alpha-amylase and sucrase,9 randomized, controlled, crossover trial of two intestinal enzymes involved in carbohydrate fenugreek seeds in 10 patients with type 2 diabe- metabolism. tes.7 The doses of these patients’ antidiabetic drug, Fenugreek seeds also lower serum trig- glibenclamide, ranged from 2.5-7.5 mg per day; lycerides, total cholesterol (TC), and low-density both medication dose and dietary intake were sta- lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C).10-14 These effects bilized prior to the actual study periods. The pa- may be due to sapogenins, which increase biliary tients were given either 25 g powdered fenugreek cholesterol excretion, in turn leading to lowered seeds in two equal doses with meals or meals with- serum cholesterol levels.10,15-17 The lipid-lowering out fenugreek supplementation for 15 days. The effect of fenugreek might also be attributed to its fenugreek powder was added to the experimental estrogenic constituent, indirectly increasing thy- diet in the form of dietary fiber, resulting in higher roid hormone T4. fiber content in the experimental diet than in the control diet. Five diabetic patients were random- Fenugreek in the Treatment of ized to receive fenugreek during the first 15-day period; the other five received it during the sec- Diabetes ond period. Subjects were then crossed over an Type 2 Diabetes additional 15 days with no washout period. In the In animal and several small, human tri- fenugreek-treated patients, statistically significant als, fenugreek seeds have been found to lower fast- mean improvements were reported for glucose- ing serum glucose levels, both acutely and chroni- tolerance test scores and serum-clearance rates of cally. glucose (control group, 153 ± 11.92 mg/mL/min; Gupta et al reported the results of a small fenugreek group, 136.4 ± 6.36 mg/mL/min). The randomized, controlled, double-blind trial to absolute difference in glucose between the two evaluate the effects of fenugreek seeds on glyce- groups was not mentioned. Larger studies with mic control.18 Twenty-five patients with newly washout periods are needed to confirm these re- diagnosed type 2 diabetes received either 1 g daily sults. of a hydroalcoholic extract of fenugreek seeds or Sharma and Raghuram conducted two “usual care” (dietary discretion and exercise). Af- randomized, controlled, crossover studies in pa- ter two months, mean fasting blood glucose lev- tients with type 2 diabetes.19 The doses of 15 pa- els were reduced in both groups without signifi- tients’ antidiabetic drug, glibenclamide/glipizide/ cant differences between groups (148.3 mg/dL to metformin, were reduced by 20 percent and both 119.9 mg/dL in the fenugreek group versus 137.5 medication dose and dietary intake were stabilized mg/dL to 113.0 mg/dL in the “usual care” group). for one week prior to the actual study periods. In There were no significant differences between the first study, subjects ate meals with or without groups in mean glucose tolerance test values at 100 g of defatted fenugreek seed powder, divided the study’s end. The authors did note differences into two equal doses, for 10 days. Patients were between groups in the area under the curve for Alternative Medicine Review ◆ Volume 8, Number 1 ◆ 2003 Page 21 Copyright©2003 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission
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Table 1. Summary of Fenugreek Studies for Diabetes Condition Evidence/ Author, Year N Statistically Quality of Magnitude Absolute Number of Comments Fenugreek Treated (Primary Study Type Significant Study of Benefit Risk Patients or Secondary Results? 0- 2=poor (how strong Reduction Needed to Outcome) 3-4=good is the Treat for 5=excellent effect?) One there was no washout period. Outcome Type 2 diabetes, Randomized, Gupta, 2001 25 Yes 3 None NA NA Improved fasting hyperlipidemia controlled, glucose and GTT with double-blind fenugreek seeds or study diet/exercise, without differences between then crossed over an additional 10 days. Seven of the 15 patients received the fenugreek diet first; groups. Altered AUC and insulin resistance with fenugreek. Type 2 diabetes Randomized, Raghuram, 10 Yes 1 Large NA NA Improved peripheral crossover study 1994 glucose utilization with fenugreek seed supplementation. Type 2 diabetes Randomized, Sharma, 15 Yes 1 Small NA NA Improvement in crossover study 1990 reported diabetic symptoms. Type 2 diabetes Case series with Neeraja, 12 Yes 1 Medium NA NA Improvement of acute matched 1996 glycemic response, controls most notable with raw fenugreek seed powder. Type 1 diabetes, Randomized, Sharma, 10 Yes 1 Large NA NA Fasting blood glucose hyperlipidemia crossover study 1990 levels and GGT improved; serum insulin levels Alternative Medicine Review ◆ Volume 8, Number 1 ◆ 2003 Review The second study had a similar study patients received the fenugreek diet first). 19 days and the total subject number was five (three design, except the duration of the study was 20 unchanged. Copyright©2003 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission
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Fenugreek Table 2. Jadad Score Explanation Item Score* Was the study described as randomized (this includes words such as randomly, random, and randomization)? 0/1 Was the method used to generate the sequence of randomization described and appropriate (table of random 0/1 numbers, computer-generated, etc)? Was the study described as double blind? 0/1 Was the method of double blinding described and appropriate (identical placebo, active placebo, dummy, etc)? 0/1 Was there a description of withdrawals and dropouts? 0/1 Deduct one point if the method used to generate the sequence of randomization was described and it was 0/-1 inappropriate (patients were allocated alternately, or according to date of birth, hospital number, etc). Deduct one point if the study was described as double blind but the method of blinding was inappropriate (e.g., 0/-1 comparison of tablet vs. injection with no double dummy). *Points are added, and a score ≥4 is considered high quality methodologically. Based on Jadad AR, Moore RA, Carroll D, et al. Assessing the quality of reports of randomized clinical trials: Is blinding necessary? Control Clin Trials 1996;17(1):1-12. Significant mean improvements in fasting blood- case series, however, the lack of controls increases glucose levels and glucose-tolerance test results the possibility the results obtained were due to were described in the fenugreek-treated patients. confounding from other interventions. Although The reduction in fasting blood glucose ranged from the results of some of these case series are prom- 179 ± 24 mg/dL to 137 ± 20.2 mg/dL (p<0.05) in ising, the conclusions drawn from them are pre- the first study and from 157 ± 22.2 mg/dL to 116 liminary. The studies conducted to date have been ± 17.1 mg/dL (p<0.05) in the second study. The methodologically weak, lacking adequate descrip- 24-hour urinary glucose excretion in both studies tions of blinding, randomization, baseline patient was statistically significant. The fenugreek-treated characteristics, statistical analysis, and standard- patient group also reported subjective ization data for the therapy used. Demonstrating improvements in polydipsia and polyuria. the efficacy of fenugreek has also been confounded Neeraja and Rajyalakshmi presented a by inconsistencies in the preparations, dosing regi- poorly designed, complex case series including six mens, and outcome measures used in the trials. men with type 2 diabetes and six without diabe- Moreover, none of the investigations have been tes.20 The cases suggest fenugreek reduced post- conducted over the long term. Additional study of prandial hyperglycemia primarily in subjects with fenugreek is warranted in this area before firm diabetes, but less so in subjects without diabetes. conclusions can be drawn. This effect might be more pronounced if raw seeds rather than boiled seeds had been used. Results from several additional case se- ries21-24 also suggest fenugreek seeds may improve glycemic control in type 2 diabetes. As with all Alternative Medicine Review ◆ Volume 8, Number 1 ◆ 2003 Page 23 Copyright©2003 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission
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Review Type 1 Diabetes weeks.27,28 While mean TC, LDL-C, and TG lev- Sharma et al conducted a randomized, els decreased by 14-16 percent during the study controlled, crossover trial in 10 patients with type period, mean HDL-C levels increased by 10 per- 1 diabetes.25 Over a 10-day period, the subjects cent. Similarly, Sowmya and Rajyalakshmi ob- were served meals that contained 100 g fenugreek served significant reductions in TC and LDL-C seed powder in two divided doses each day (lunch levels in 20 adults with hypercholesterolemia who and dinner) or meals without fenugreek. At the received 12.5-18.0 g powdered, germinated study’s end, significant improvement was noted fenugreek seeds for one month, although no in the fenugreek group in several parameters, in- changes in HDL-C, very-low-density lipoprotein cluding a 54-percent reduction in 24-hour urine (VLDL), or TG levels were observed.29 glucose levels and mean reductions in glucose- In another study, Sharma also reported a tolerance test values and fasting serum-glucose decrease in total cholesterol levels in five diabetic levels (from 15.1 ± 2.4 mMol/L to 10.9 ± 2.75 patients treated with fenugreek seed powder (25 mMol/L; p<0.01). Although these data are intrigu- g orally per day) for 21 days.30 Bordia et al stud- ing, they cannot be considered definitive. This ied the effects of fenugreek seed powder (2.5 g study suggests fenugreek may aid with insulin administered twice daily for three months) in a secretion, as suggested by animal studies, since subgroup of 40 subjects.22 In the subjects who had typically these patients have little or no endog- coronary artery disease and type 2 diabetes, sig- enous insulin production. More studies in people nificant decreases in the TC and TG levels were with type 1 diabetes are warranted. observed, with no change in HDL-C level. The Table 1 summarizes the fenugreek stud- methodology for this study was not clearly docu- ies for diabetes, while Table 2 describes the scor- mented. ing procedure for these studies. Most available studies are case series lack- ing proper controls, randomization, or blinding. Further, double-blind research is warranted. Effects on Lipid Lowering In the Sharma et al trial on type 1 diabe- tes cited above,25 small but statistically significant Safety/Adverse Effects reductions were noted in TC (approximately 1.3 A review of the literature on fenugreek mMol/L; p<0.001) and in LDL-C levels (approxi- reveals no reports of clinically significant harm- mately 1.0 mMol/L; p<0.01), but the level of high- ful adverse effects. Although fenugreek has tradi- density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) remained tionally been considered safe and well tolerated, unchanged. Without an adequate description of some side effects have been associated with its blinding and randomization, the results of this use. Caution in using fenugreek is warranted in study can only be considered preliminary. patients known to be allergic to it or who are al- Several case series have also found lergic to chickpeas because of possible cross-re- hypocholesterolemic effects associated with oral activity.3 Fenugreek contained in curry powder fenugreek. Sharma et al investigated 15 nonobese, was found to be an allergen in a patient who re- asymptomatic, hyperlipidemic adults.26 After the ported severe bronchospasm, wheezing, and diar- subjects had ingested 100 g defatted fenugreek rhea.31 powder per day for three weeks, their triglyceride Other reported side effects include tran- (TG) and LDL-C levels were lower than baseline sient diarrhea and flatulence,23,27,30 and dizziness.32 values. Slight decreases in HDL levels were also Hypoglycemia is an expected effect; therefore, noted. care should be taken to monitor blood glucose lev- In a later study, normalization of lipid pro- els when beginning supplementation.19,21-25,32-34 files was observed in 60 patients with type 2 dia- Decreased body weight has also been reported and betes whose diets were supplemented with 25 g attributed to decreases in T3.35 Because fenugreek powdered fenugreek seeds per day for 24 preparations can contain coumarin derivatives, Page 24 Alternative Medicine Review ◆ Volume 8, Number 1 ◆ 2003 Copyright©2003 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission
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Fenugreek there is a theoretical risk prothrombin time (PT) Dosage or the international normalized ratio (INR) might Defatted powdered fenugreek seeds (100 be increased, which, in turn, increases the risk of g), divided in two equal doses,25 have been used bleeding.36 Fenugreek should not be used during to treat type 1 diabetes. Fenugreek seed powder pregnancy because of its potential uterine stimu- in capsule form (2.5 g twice daily for three lating properties observed in early animal stud- months)22 and in seed powder (25 g divided into ies.37 two equal doses)7,27,28 have been used to treat type 2 diabetes. Fenugreek has also been used to treated Potential Drug Interactions hyperlipidemia, both as seed powder in capsule Products rich in fiber (such as fenugreek form (2.5 g twice daily for three months)22 and as fiber) can interfere with the absorption of oral defatted powdered seeds (100 g divided in two medications because its fiber is mucilaginous and equal doses).25 Commercially, fenugreek is avail- has high viscosity in the gut. Prescription medi- able in seed powder capsules, teas, and pulver- cations, therefore, should be taken separately from ized seeds that can be mixed in water. fenugreek-containing products. Because concomi- tant use of fenugreek with other hypoglycemic Conclusions and Future Direction agents might lower serum glucose levels more than The incidence of type 2 diabetes is in- expected, the level should be monitored creasing dramatically worldwide, resulting in large closely.19,21-25,32,33 An aqueous extract of fenugreek measure from the increasing prevalence of obe- reduced potassium levels in a small group of sity.41 In addition, research is uncovering the im- healthy subjects 14 percent. 15 Consequently, portance of the “pre-diabetic” state or metabolic fenugreek may precipitate hypokalemia when used syndrome, when insulin resistance gives rise to in combination with some diuretics, laxatives, impairment of glucose metabolism.41,42 Unfortu- mineralocorticoids, or other hypokalemic agents.32 nately, patients who have metabolic syndrome or Fenugreek is also purported to contain an estro- diabetes are at greatly increased risk of cardio- genic constituent. Decreases in the serum level of vascular morbidity and mortality.42,43 Thus, dietary T3 and in the T3/T4 ratio, as well as an increase in supplements that can modulate glucose homeo- the serum level of T4, have been observed in mice stasis and potentially improve lipid parameters and rats given fenugreek.35 would be desirable. This is especially true for dia- betes prevention in patients with metabolic syn- Toxicology drome. These patients already manifest abnormali- Toxicological evaluation of 60 diabetic ties of glucose handling and could benefit from a patients who took powdered fenugreek seeds at a low-risk, inexpensive, food-based intervention dose of 25 g per day for 24 weeks disclosed no aimed at normalizing their metabolic milieu. clinical hepatic or renal toxicity and no hemato- Fenugreek is a dietary supplement that may hold logical abnormalities.27 In an animal study, the promise in this regard. The data generated to date acute oral LD50 was found to be >5 g/kg in rats, are sparse but will hopefully lead to the develop- and the acute dermal LD50 was found to be >2 g/ ment of well-designed, adequately powered, ran- kg in rabbits.38 In another animal study, fenugreek domized, clinical trials evaluating the effect of powder failed to induce any signs of toxicity or fenugreek seed powder on measures of insulin mortality in mice and rats who received acute and resistance, insulin secretion, and cholesterol me- subchronic regimens.39 Moreover, there were no tabolism. significant hematological, hepatic, or histopatho- logical changes in weanling rats fed fenugreek seeds for 90 days.40 Alternative Medicine Review ◆ Volume 8, Number 1 ◆ 2003 Page 25 Copyright©2003 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission
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Review References 13. Al-Habori M, Raman A. Antidiabetic and hypocholesterolaemic effects of fenugreek. 1. Morcos SR, Elhawary Z, Gabrial GN. Protein- Phytother Res 1998;12:233-242. rich food mixtures for feeding the young in Egypt. 1. Formulation. Z Ernahrungswiss 14. Valette G, Sauvaire Y, Baccou JC, Ribes G. 1981;20:275-282. Hypocholesterolaemic effect of fenugreek seeds in dogs. Atherosclerosis 1984;50:105- 2. Yoshikawa M, Murakami T, Komatsu H, et al. 111. Medicinal foodstuffs. IV. Fenugreek seed. (1): structures of trigoneosides Ia, Ib, IIa, IIb, IIIa, 15. Sauvaire Y, Ribes G, Baccou JC, et al. Impli- and IIIb, new furostanol saponins from the cation of steroid saponins and sapogenins in seeds of Indian Trigonella foenum-graecum L. the hypocholesterolemic effect of fenugreek. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 1997;45:81-87. Lipids 1991;26:191-197. 3. Patil SP, Niphadkar PV, Bapat MM. Allergy to 16. Varshney IP, Sharma SC. Saponins and fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum). Ann sapogenins: part XXXII. Studies on Trigonella Allergy Asthma Immunol 1997;78:297-300. foenum-graecum Linn. seeds. J Indian Chem Soc 1966;43:564-567. 4. Ribes G, Sauvaire Y, Baccou JC, et al. Effects of fenugreek seeds on endocrine pancreatic 17. Sidhu GS, Oakenfull DG. A mechanism for the secretions in dogs. Ann Nutr Metab hypocholesterolaemic activity of saponins. Br 1984;28:37-43. J Nutr 1986;55:643-649. 5. Ribes G, Sauvaire Y, Da Costa C, et al. 18. Gupta A, Gupta R, Lal B. Effect of Trigonella Antidiabetic effects of subfractions from foenum-graecum (fenugreek) seeds on fenugreek seeds in diabetic dogs. Proc Soc Exp glycaemic control and insulin resistance in Biol Med 1986;182:159-166. type 2 diabetes mellitus: a double blind placebo controlled study. J Assoc Physicians 6. Sauvaire Y, Petit P, Broca C, et al. 4- India 2001;49:1057-1061. Hydroxyisoleucine: a novel amino acid potentiator of insulin secretion. Diabetes 19. Sharma RD, Raghuram TC. Hypoglycaemic 1998;47:206-210. effect of fenugreek seeds in non-insulin dependent diabetic subjects. Nutr Res 7. Raghuram TC, Sharma RD, Sivakumar B, et 1990;10:731-739. al. Effect of fenugreek seeds on intravenous glucose disposition in non-insulin dependent 20. Neeraja A, Rajyalakshmi P. Hypoglycemic diabetic patients. Phytother Res 1994;8:83-86. effect of processed fenugreek seeds in humans. J Food Sci Technol 1996;33:427-430. 8. Ajabnoor MA, Tilmisany AK. Effect of Trigonella foenum graceum on blood glucose 21. Madar Z, Abel R, Samish S, Arad J. Glucose- levels in normal and alloxan-diabetic mice. J lowering effect of fenugreek in non-insulin Ethnopharmacol 1988;22:45-49. dependent diabetics. Eur J Clin Nutr 1988;42:51-54. 9. Amin R, Abdul-Ghani AS, Suleiman MS. Effect of Trigonella feonum graecum on 22. Bordia A, Verma SK, Srivastava KC. Effect of intestinal absorption. Proc. of the 47th Annual ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) and Meeting of the American Diabetes Association fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum L.) on (Indianapolis U.S.A.). Diabetes 1987;36:211a. blood lipids, blood sugar and platelet aggrega- tion in patients with coronary artery disease. 10. Stark A, Madar Z. The effect of an ethanol Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids extract derived from fenugreek (Trigonella 1997;56:379-384. foenum-graecum) on bile acid absorption and cholesterol levels in rats. Br J Nutr 23. Sharma RD. Effect of fenugreek seeds and 1993;69:277-287. leaves on blood glucose and serum insulin responses in human subjects. Nutr Res 11. Petit P, Sauvaire Y, Ponsin G, et al. Effects of a 1986;6:1353-1364. fenugreek seed extract on feeding behaviour in the rat: metabolic-endocrine correlates. 24. Sharma RD, Sarkar A, Hazra DK, et al. Use of Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1993;45:369-374. fenugreek seed powder in the management of non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Nutr 12. Al-Habori M, Al-Aghbari AM, Al-Mamary M. Res 1996;16:1331-1339. Effects of fenugreek seeds and its extracts on plasma lipid profile: a study on rabbits. Phytother Res 1998;12:572-575. Page 26 Alternative Medicine Review ◆ Volume 8, Number 1 ◆ 2003 Copyright©2003 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission
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Fenugreek 25. Sharma RD, Raghuram TC, Rao NS. Effect of 39. Muralidhara, Narasimhamurthy K, Viswanatha fenugreek seeds on blood glucose and serum S, Ramesh BS. Acute and subchronic toxicity lipids in type I diabetes. Eur J Clin Nutr assessment of debitterized fenugreek powder 1990;44:301-306. in the mouse and rat. Food Chem Toxicol 26. Sharma RD, Raghuram TC, Dayasagar Rao V. 1999;37:831-838. Hypolipidaemic effect of fenugreek seeds. A 40. Rao PU, Sesikeran B, Rao PS, et al. Short term clinical study. Phytother Res 1991;3:145-147. nutritional and safety evaluation of fenugreek. 27. Sharma RD, Sarkar A, Hazra DK, et al. Nutr Res 1996;16:1495-1505. Toxicological evaluation of fenugreek seeds: a 41. Yale JF. Prevention of type 2 diabetes. Int J long term feeding experiment in diabetic Clin Pract Suppl 2000;113:35-39. patients. Phytother Res 1996;10:519-520. 42. No authors listed. Executive summary of the 28. Sharma RD, Sarkar DK, Hazra B, et al. third report of The National Cholesterol Hypolipidaemic effect of fenugreek seeds: a Education Program (NCEP) expert panel on chronic study in non-insulin dependent detection, evaluation, and treatment of high diabetic patients. Phytother Res 1996;10:332- blood cholesterol in adults (Adult Treatment 334. Panel III). JAMA 2001;285:2486-2497. 29. Sowmya P, Rajyalakshmi P. Hypocholesterol- 43. Ford ES, Giles WH, Dietz WH. Prevalence of emic effect of germinated fenugreek seeds in the metabolic syndrome among US adults: human subjects. Plant Foods Hum Nutr findings from the third National Health and 1999;53:359-365. Nutrition Examination Survey. JAMA 30. Sharma R. An evaluation of hypocholesterol- 2002;287:356-359. emic factor of fenugreek seeds (T foenum graecum) in rats. Nutr Rep Int 1986;33:669- 677. 31. Ohnuma N, Yamaguchi E, Kawakami Y. Anaphylaxis to curry powder. Allergy 1998;53:452-454. 32. Abdel-Barry JA, Abdel-Hassan IA, Jawad AM, al-Hakiem MH. Hypoglycaemic effect of aqueous extract of the leaves of Trigonella foenum-graecum in healthy volunteers. East Mediterr Health J 2000;6:83-88. 33. Mishkinsky J, Joseph B, Sulman FG. Hypoglycaemic effect of trigonelline. Lancet 1967;2:1311-1312. 34. Sewell AC, Mosandl A, Bohles H. False diagnosis of maple syrup urine disease owing to ingestion of herbal tea. N Engl J Med 1999;341:769. 35. Panda S, Tahiliani P, Kar A. Inhibition of triiodothyronine production by fenugreek seed extract in mice and rats. Pharmacol Res 1999;40:405-409. 36. Lambert JP, Cormier A. Potential interaction between warfarin and boldo-fenugreek. Pharmacotherapy 2001;21:509-512. 37. Abdo MS, al-Kafawi AA. Experimental studies on the effect of Trigonella foenum- graecum. Planta Med 1969;17:14-18. 38. Opdyke DL. Fenugreek absolute. Food Cosmet Toxicol 1978;16:S755-S756. Alternative Medicine Review ◆ Volume 8, Number 1 ◆ 2003 Page 27 Copyright©2003 Thorne Research, Inc. All Rights Reserved. No Reprint Without Written Permission
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