The document summarizes the structure and function of microtubules in eukaryotic cells. It discusses how microtubules are composed of protein subunits that assemble into hollow tubes. Microtubules emanate from microtubule organizing centers and serve important roles as structural supports, in intracellular transport through motor proteins like kinesin and dynein, and in cell division through formation of the mitotic spindle. Microtubules are also the main components of cilia and flagella and enable their bending movements through the motor protein dynein.

2. The eukaryotic cells possess a skeletal system
called cytoskeleton that has got analogous
function.
The cytoskeleton is composed of 3 well defined
filamentous structurs – microtubules,
microfilaments and intermediate filaments with
distinct functions .
Each filaments are made of protein subunits
held together by weak non covalent bonds.
 This type of construction allows rapid assembly
and disasembly contolled by cell regulation

5. MICROTUBULES
They are components of a diverse array of substances including the mitotic
spindles of dividing cells and core of flagella and cilia
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
Have an outer diameter of 25nm and a wall thickness of 4nm and may extend
across the length and breadth of the cell
The wall of microtubule is composed of globular proteins arranged in
longitudinal rows called protofilaments that are allinged parallel to the long axis
of the tubule .

6. When veiwed in cross section they are seen
to have 13 protofilaments allinged side by
side in a circular pattern
Each protofilament is assembled from
dimeric building blocks consisting of one
alpha and one beta subunits
The protofilament is asymmetric with alpha
subunit on one end and beta on the other
One end of the protofilament is known as
the plus end is terminated by a row of beta
tubulin units and the mnus end is
terminated by the alpha tubulin units

8. 1. ACT AS STRUCTURAL SUPPORT AND
ORGANIZERS
 They are stiff enough to resist the forces that can
bend or compress the fibre
 The distribution of microtubules through the
cytoplasm of a cell determines the shape of a cell
eg: in coloumnar epithelial cells the microtubules
are alligned along the axis of the cell
 Maintain a key role in the internal organization of
a cell

9. 2.ACT AS AGENTS OF
INTRACELLULAR MOTILITY
Involved in the movement of
vesicles,proteins,organellsetc across
the cytoplasm throught the cell
Eg: AXONAL TRANSPORT: proteins
such as neurotransmittors are
secreated and packed in membranous
vesicles by golgi body and
endoplasmic reticulum of the cell
body are transported through the
axon which consists of a number of of
microtubules and motor proteins
which takes it down the axon

10. MOTOR PROTEINS :
 they convert chemical energy into mechanical energy that
is used to generate force or move the Types of cargo include
vesicles,chromosomes , mitochondria, proteins etc
They can be classified into 3 types mainly : kinesins and
dyneins that move along the microtubules and myosin that
move along microfilaments
The binding of ATP and its hydrolysis provides energy to
them to travel
cargo attached to the motor

11. KINESINS: is a tetramer constructed by 2 identical
heavy chains and 2 identical light chains, has a
globular head that binds ATP ,a neck a stalk and a fan
shaped tail that binds to the cargo to be transported

12. DYENEINS: it is a huge protein composed of two identical
heavy chains and a variety of intermediate and light
chains. They are responsible for the movement of cilia and
flagella .move towards the minus end of the microtubule.
They act as:
As a force-generating agent in positioning the spindle and
moving chromosomes during mitosis
As a minus end–directed microtubular motor with a role
in positioning the centrosome and Golgi complex and
moving organelles,vesicles,and particles through the
cytoplasm

14. MICROTUBULE ORGANIZING
CENTRE
1. CENTROSOME: In animal cells, the
centrosome has a pair of centrioles,
each with nine triplets of microtubules
arranged in a ring.
• the centroles are surrounded by an
electron rich pericentriolar matrix

16. Microtubules are major
components of spindle
fibre used to pull apart
chromosomes during cell
division

18. 2. BASAL BODIES
the outer microtubules in a cillia or flagella arise from
basal bodies attached to the base of cillia or flagella

19. Microtubules are the central structural supports in
cilia and flagella.
Both can move unicellular and small multicellular
organisms by propelling water past the organism.
If these structures are anchored in a large structure,
they move fluid over a surface.
 For example, cilia sweep mucus carrying trapped debris from
the lungs.

20. A flagellum has an undulatory movement.
Force is generated parallel to the flagellum’s axis.
Fig. 7.23a

21. Fig. 7.23b
Cilia move more like oars with alternating power and
recovery strokes.
They generate force perpendicular to the cilia’s axis.

23. In spite of their differences, both cilia and flagella have
the same ultrastructure.
Both have a core of microtubules sheathed by the plasma
membrane.
Nine doublets of microtubules arranged around a pair at
the center, the “9 + 2” pattern.
Flexible “wheels” of proteins connect outer doublets to
each other and to the core.
The outer doublets are also connected by motor
proteins.
The cilium or flagellum is anchored in the cell by a basal
body, whose structure is identical to a centriole.

25. The bending of cilia and flagella is driven by the arms of
a motor protein, dynein.
Addition to dynein of a phosphate group from ATP and
its removal causes conformation changes in the protein.
Dynein arms alternately
grab, move, and release
the outer microtubules.
Protein cross-links limit
sliding and the force is
expressed as bending.
Fig. 7.25

26. microfilaments
 the thinnest class of the cytoskeletal fibers, are
solid rods of the globular protein actin.
An actin microfilament consists of a twisted double
chain of actin subunits.
Microfilaments are designed to resist tension.
With other proteins, they form a three-
dimensional network just inside the plasma
membrane.

27. In muscle cells, thousands of actin filaments are
arranged parallel to one another.
Thicker filaments, composed of a motor protein,
myosin, interdigitate with the thinner actin fibers.
Myosin molecules walk along the actin filament, pulling
stacks of actin fibers together and shortening
the cell.
Fig. 7.21a

28. In other cells, these actin-myosin aggregates are less
organized but still cause localized contraction.
A contracting belt of microfilaments divides the
cytoplasm of animals cells during cell division.
Localized contraction also drives amoeboid movement.
 Pseudopodia, cellular extensions, extend and contract
through the reversible assembly and contraction of actin
subunits into microfilaments.
Fig. 7.21b

29. In plant cells (and others), actin-myosin interactions
and sol-gel transformations drive cytoplasmic
streaming.
This creates a circular flow of cytoplasm in the cell.
This speeds the distribution of materials within the cell.
Fig. 7.21c