HUMAN BLOOD - composition and functions of blood, hemopoeisis, blood grouping, Rh factors, Blood bank, disorders of blood

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HUMAN BLOOD
Anatomy & Physiology
By: Dr.S.Kameshwaran

3. Blood
 Blood is a bodily fluid in animals
 that delivers necessary substances such as
nutrients and oxygen to the cells &
transports metabolic waste products away
from the cells
 Blood accounts for 8% of the human body
weight,
 Blood pH is 7.35 to 7.45,
 average density of approximately 1060
kg/m3,
 The average adult has a blood volume of
roughly 5 litres

4.  blood is composed of
PLASMA & SEVERAL KINDS OF CELLS
These blood cells (Corpuscles or "formed
elements") consist of
 erythrocytes (red blood cells, RBCs),
 Leukocytes (white blood cells), and
 Thrombocytes (platelets).
By volume,
 RBC constitute about 45% of whole blood,
 The plasma about 54.3%, and
 WBC about 0.7%.

6. PLASMA:
 About 55% of blood is blood plasma,
 a fluid that is the blood's liquid medium,
 It is straw-yellow in color.
 The blood plasma volume totals of 2.7–3.0 liters in
an average human.
It is essentially an aqueous solution containing
 92% water,
 7% blood plasma proteins (Albumin (60%),
globulin (35%), fibrinogen (4%))
Other solutes - 1%
 Dissolved Gasses – including O2 and CO2
 Electrolytes
 Organic nutrients
 Waste Products
Serum = plasma- clotting proteins

7. FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA PROTEINS:
Albumins 3.5-5.0 g/dl -
 maintains colloid osmotic pressure
 transport insoluble molecules
Globulins 2.0-2.5 g/dl
participate in immune system
Fibrinogen 0.2-0.45 g/d
Blood coagulation
Regulatory proteins
Regulation of gene expression

9. FORMED ELEMENTS OF THE BLOOD:
• Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
• Leukocytes (white blood cells)
• Platelets (thrombocytes)

10. ERYTHROCYTE:
It is also known as
 RBCs, Red cells, Red blood corpuscles, Haematids,
Erythroid cells
 It is a Greek word:
Erythros - red & kytos - hollow vessel
 The first person to describe RBC was biologist Jan
Swammerdam
 Mature red blood cells are flexible and oval
biconcave disks
 6–8 μm in diameter in size
 2 μm in thickness

11.  They lack a cell nucleus and most organelles, in
order to accommodate maximum space for
hemoglobin
 The cytoplasm of erythrocytes is rich in
hemoglobin,
 The cells developed in the bone marrow
 Life span about 100–120 days
 Destroyed in spleen
NORMAL VALUES: (Medline plus)
Male: 4.7 to 6.1 million cells/mm3
Female: 3.8 to 5.8 million cells/mm3

13. HEMOGLOBIN
 It is the gas transporting protein molecule that makes up
95% of a red cell.
 It is an iron-containing biomolecule
 Each red cell has about 280 million iron-rich hemoglobin
molecules.
• Hb consist of
– 4 globin molecules: Transport carbon dioxide, nitric oxide
– 4 heme molecules: Transport oxygen
 Iron is required for oxygen transport
 The red color of blood is primarily due to Hb

14. Hb normal value:
adults
 Male: 13 to 18 g/ 100mL
 Female: 11.5 to 16.5 g/dL
children
 Newborn: 14 to 24 g/dL
 Infant: 9.5 to 13 g/dL

15. FUNCTIONS OF RBC:
 Delivering oxygen (O2) to the body tissues via blood
flow through the circulatory system.
 RBCs take up oxygen in the lungs and release it into
tissues
 Transport carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs

16. HEMATOPOIESIS & ERYTHROPOIESIS
Greek 'erythro' - "red" and
'poiesis' - "to make"
“Erythropoiesis is the process by
which the origin, development and
maturation of erythrocytes occur”
“Hemopoiesis is the process which
includes origin, development and
maturation of all the blood cells”
Stem cell- RBCs - 7DAYS

17. DECREASED OXYGEN IN CIRCULATION
WHICH IS DETECTED BY THE KIDNEYS
SECRETE THE HORMONE ERYTHROPOIETIN
THIS HORMONE STIMULATES PROLIFERATION AND
DIFFERENTIATION OF RED CELL PRECURSORS
ERYTHROPOIESIS
INCREASE IN RED BLOOD CELLS
INCREASE IN OXYGEN CARRYING CAPACITY

18. RBC Formation before birth
IN FETAL LIFE
• During embryonic life, the erythropoiesis
occurs in three stages.
Mesoblastic stage
Hepatic stage
Myeloid stage

19. Mesoblastic stage:
During the first two months of intrauterine
life, the primitive red blood cells are produced
from mesenchyme of yolk sac.

20. Hepatic stage:
From third month of intrauterine life, liver is
the main organ that produces red blood cells
also produced from spleen and lymphoid
organs
Myeloid stage:
During the last three months of intra uterine
life, the red blood cells are produced red bone
marrow and liver.

21. RBC Formation after birth
• In newborn babies, growing children and
adults, the blood cells are produced only
from the red bone marrow.
• 1. Up to the age of 5 to 6 years: The red
blood cell produced in red bone marrow of
all bones.
• 2. From 6th year up to 20th year: The red
blood cell produced by red bone marrow of
long bones (Femur, Humerus and Tibia) and
the membranous (flat) bones (Scapula, The
Sternum, Cranium)

22. • 3.After the age of 20 years: RBC produced
from all membranous bones, skull bones and
from the ends of long bones.
• After 20 age, the shaft of the long bones
becomes yellow bone marrow because of fat
deposition and looses the erythropoietic
function.
• During disorders of bone ,the red blood
cells are produced in the spleen.

23. Bone marrow cells for Erythropoiesis
 Pluripotential hematopoietic stem cell (PHSC)
 Committed stem cell that produces erythrocytes is called
Colony-forming unit–erythrocyte, CFU-E
Factors:
– Growth inducers
– Differentiation inducers.

25. Vitamin B12 & dietary folic acid – peomote
maturation
Dietary iron – production of Hb

26. Proerythroblast
• No hemoglobin
• Nucleus 12 um
• Contain nucleoli

27. Basophil erythroblast
• Also known as Early normoblast
• Nucleoli disappear & Show mitosis
• Cytoplasm - deep blue, Increase in RNA
• Hemoglobin starts appearing – Little Hb

28. Polychromatophil erythroblast
• Also known as Late normoblast
• Nucleus smaller
• Hemoglobin increase

29. Orthochromatic Erythroblast
• Also known as Normoblast
• Nucleus smaller
• Nuclear lysis and
• Nuclear extrusion
• Released in to circulation

30. Reticulocyte
immature red blood
1 % of Red Cells
do not have a cell nucleus cells
reticular (mesh-like) network of ribosomal RNA
visible under a microscope with certain stains such as
new methylene blue.
filled with Hb
After 1-2 days develops in to fully matured RBC

31. HAEMOLYSIS OF RBC:
 life span of RBC 120 days
 after that they getting break down
 carried out by phagocytic reticuloendothelial cells
 mostly haemolysis occurs in
spleen, bone marrow, & liver
 iron is release by the hemolysis is retained in the
body and reused by the bone marrow
heme part – biliverdin – bilirubin – liver – excreted in
bile

32. Leukocytes – White Blood Cells (WBCs)
 Defence and immunity
 Protect the body from infectious microorganisms
 Detect the foreign or abnormal material and destroy it
 They are largest among all blood cells
 Accounts 1% of total blood volume
 WBCs have a nucleus some have granules in its
cytoplasm
 4,800 – 11,000/cubic millimeter
 Most produced in bone marrow
 Lifespan of 12 hours to several years

33. • Two types of leukocytes
– Granulocytes
– Agranulocytes

34. Granulocytes
• They contain granules in its cytoplasm
• All granulocytes having multi lobed nuclei
in their cytoplasm
• Eg
• NEUTROPHILS
• BASOPHIL
• EOSINOPHIL

35. Neutrophils
forms an essential part of the innate immune system,
Phagocytize and destroy bacteria
Nucleus – has two to six lobes
Granules pick up acidic and basic stains
Contains lysosome enzyme – digest bacterias
They are formed from stem cells in the bone marrow.
Lives for 6-9 hours in blood stream
They are the most abundant (40% to 75%) type of white
blood cells in mammals
The name neutrophil derives from staining
characteristics on methylene blue and eosin
Looks in purple

37. • Eosinophils
Also known as acidophils
compose 1 – 6% of all WBCs
Eosinophils persist in the circulation for 8–12 hours
Capable of phagocytosis but less active than neutrophils
Special role in eliminating parasites (worms)
Eosinophil binds to the big organisms and release the toxic chemicals
– kills
Play roles in ending allergic reactions, parasitic infections
control mechanisms associated with allergy and asthma
appear brick-red after staining with eosin, a red dye,

38. Basophils
< 1% of total WBCs
Nucleus usually has two lobes
Closely associated with allergic reactions
Basophils contain large cytoplasmic granules packed with
heparin & histamine and other substances to promote
inflammation
Takes up the alkaline methylene blue dye

39. Agranulocytes
They have a large nucleus
Dose not have the cytoplasmic granules
They make up to 25-50% of the total leukocyte count
Eg:
Monocytes
Lymphocytes

40. Monocytes
 compose 2–10% of WBCs
 The largest leukocytes
 They are amoeboid in shape, having agranulated cytoplasm
 Monocytes have unilobar nuclei – kidney shaped
 In blood - Phagocytic cells, some migrate in to tissue and
Transform into macrophages
 Both cells produce interleukin – 1, which raise the body
temperature when infected by microbes
 Enhance the T-Lymphocyte production

42. • Lymphocytes
compose 20 – 50% of WBCs
Smaller than monocyte & Having large nuclei
Mostly found in tissues (lymph node & spleen)
Developed from pluripotent stem cell in red bone marrow
The most important cells of the immune system
Effective in fighting infectious organisms
Act against a specific foreign molecule (antigen)
three subtypes
natural killer cells (NK cells) - which function in cell-mediated,
cytotoxic innate immunity
T cells - cell-mediated, cytotoxic adaptive immunit
B cells - humoral, antibody-driven adaptive immunity, They
are the main type of cell found in lymph, which prompted the
name lymphocyte.

43. • Normal values
•Total leukocytes: 4.00-11.0 x 10 9/L
• Granulocytes:
• Neutrophils: 2.5–7.5 x 10 9/L
• Eosinophils: 0.04-0.44 x 10 9/L
• Basophils: 0.015-0.1 x 10 9/L
• Agranulocytes:
• Lymphocytes: 1.5–3.5 x 10 9/L
• Monocytes: 0.2–0.8 x 10 9/L

44. Platelets
also called "thrombocytes"
2–4 µm in diameter.
which are derived from the megakaryocytes of the
bone marrow
Platelets have no cell nucleus
Cytoplasm packed with granules which contains
variety of substances (heamostasis substances)
function is to stop bleeding by clumping and clogging
blood vessel injuries.
Normal count : 2,00,000 – 3,50,000 cells/mm3
Life span 8-11 days

46. Disorders of RBC:
 Polycythemia vera: Increase in RBC count
 Anemia : decrease in RBC
Types:
More severe anemia can cause fatigue, pale skin, and
shortness of breath with exertion.
 Iron-deficiency anemia
 Pernicious anemia (B12 deficiency)
 Aplastic Anemia(bone marrow insufficiency)
 hemolytic anemia (immune system destroys the body's
own red blood cells)
 sickle cell anemia – RBC sticky and stiff

47. Disorders of WBC
 Lymphoma : A form of blood cancer that develops
in the lymph system.
 Leukemia : increase in WBC count than normal
 Leukophenia : decrease in WBC count

48. Disorders of Platelets:
 Thrombocytopenia : A low number of platelets in
the blood
 Thrombocythemia : A increase in number of
platelets in the blood.

49. Storage of blood:
 Storage units must be equipped with a continuous
temperature monitoring system that records
temperatures at least once every four hours and an
alarm that sounds if temperature limits are
reached.
 Whole Blood, Red Blood Cells 1-6C
 Plasma -18C or colder
 Platelets 20-24C, with gentle agitation
 Granulocytes 20-24C, without agitation

50. BLOOD BANK:
 A blood bank is a bank of blood or blood
components, gathered as a result of blood
donation or collection, stored and preserved for
later use in blood transfusion.
 The term "blood bank" typically refers to a
division of a hospital where the storage of blood
product occurs and
 where proper testing is performed (to reduce the
risk of transfusion related adverse events).
 sometimes refers to a collection center, and
indeed some hospitals also perform collection.

51. "Whole blood" (WB)
Un separated venous blood with an approved
preservative added.
Most blood for transfusion is collected as whole
blood.
whole blood is typically separated (via
centrifugation) into its components,
red blood cells (RBC) in solution being the most
commonly used product.
Units of WB and RBC are both kept refrigerated at
33.8 to 42.8 °F (1.0 to 6.0 °C), with maximum
permitted storage periods (shelf lives) of 35 and 42
days respectively.
a first-in-first-out inventory management approach

52. The ABO SYSTEM:
 55% of the population has either
 A blood group (A type antigens),
 B blood group (B type antigens) or
 AB blood group (A,B antigens)
 45% of peoples having O blood group (NO antigen)
 Antibodies:
 Corresponding antibodies Anti-A & Anti-B
 A group- cannot make Anti-A antibody – Anti -B only
 B group – cannot make Anti-B antibody –Anti-A only
 AB group – No Antibody
 O group – makes both antibodies – Anti-A & Anti-B

54. BLOOD GROUP:
Individuals
transfused with blood of same group (possessing
same antigen on the surface of the cell)
immune system will not recognize them as foreign
body
will not reject them
- compatible

55. Patients
supplied with different group of blood (possessing
different antigen on the surface of the cell)
immune system produces antibody to the foreign
antigen
destroy the transfused cell
- incompatible blood transfusion

57.  Type O blood may be transfused into all the
other types. It is called the universal donor.
 Type AB blood can receive blood from all the
other blood types. It is called the universal

58. Rh Factor:
 This name obtained from from the african monkey
Rhesus
 It is a speical type of antigen (D Antigen)
 it is an inherited protein found on the surface of red
blood cells.
 If blood has D antigen - Rh positive.
 If blood lacks - Rh negative
 85% of peoples are positive
 15% negative

59. BLOOD GROUPING

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