For SHM, the restoring force is proportional to the displacement. The period is the time required for one cycle, and the frequency is the number of cycles per second. Period for a mass on a spring: SHM is sinusoidal. During SHM, the total energy is continually changing from kinetic to potential and back. Waves transport energy and may interfere constructively or destructively; standing waves occur at resonant frequencies on fixed strings.

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2. Chapter 11 Vibrations and Waves

5. 11-1 Simple Harmonic Motion If an object vibrates or oscillates back and forth over the same path, each cycle taking the same amount of time, the motion is called periodic. The mass and spring system is a useful model for a periodic system.

6. 11-1 Simple Harmonic Motion We assume that the surface is frictionless. There is a point where the spring is neither stretched nor compressed; this is the equilibrium position. We measure displacement from that point ( x = 0 on the previous figure). The force exerted by the spring depends on the displacement: (11-1)

9. 11-1 Simple Harmonic Motion If the spring is hung vertically, the only change is in the equilibrium position, which is at the point where the spring force equals the gravitational force.

10. 11-1 Simple Harmonic Motion Any vibrating system where the restoring force is proportional to the negative of the displacement is in simple harmonic motion (SHM), and is often called a simple harmonic oscillator.

11. 11-2 Energy in the Simple Harmonic Oscillator We already know that the potential energy of a spring is given by: The total mechanical energy is then: The total mechanical energy will be conserved, as we are assuming the system is frictionless. (11-3)

12. 11-2 Energy in the Simple Harmonic Oscillator If the mass is at the limits of its motion, the energy is all potential. If the mass is at the equilibrium point, the energy is all kinetic. We know what the potential energy is at the turning points: (11-4a)

13. 11-2 Energy in the Simple Harmonic Oscillator The total energy is, therefore And we can write: (11-4c) This can be solved for the velocity as a function of position: (11-5) where

14. 11-3 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature of SHM If we look at the projection onto the x axis of an object moving in a circle of radius A at a constant speed v max , we find that the x component of its velocity varies as: This is identical to SHM.

15. 11-3 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature of SHM Therefore, we can use the period and frequency of a particle moving in a circle to find the period and frequency: (11-7a) (11-7b)

16. 11-3 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature of SHM We can similarly find the position as a function of time: (11-8c) (11-8b) (11-8a)

17. 11-3 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature of SHM The top curve is a graph of the previous equation. The bottom curve is the same, but shifted ¼ period so that it is a sine function rather than a cosine.

18. 11-3 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature of SHM The velocity and acceleration can be calculated as functions of time; the results are below, and are plotted at left. (11-9) (11-10)

19. 11-4 The Simple Pendulum A simple pendulum consists of a mass at the end of a lightweight cord. We assume that the cord does not stretch, and that its mass is negligible.

20. 11-4 The Simple Pendulum In order to be in SHM, the restoring force must be proportional to the negative of the displacement. Here we have: which is proportional to sin θ and not to θ itself. However, if the angle is small, sin θ ≈ θ .

21. 11-4 The Simple Pendulum Therefore, for small angles, we have: The period and frequency are: (11-11a) (11-11b) where

22. 11-4 The Simple Pendulum So, as long as the cord can be considered massless and the amplitude is small, the period does not depend on the mass.

23. 11-5 Damped Harmonic Motion Damped harmonic motion is harmonic motion with a frictional or drag force. If the damping is small, we can treat it as an “envelope” that modifies the undamped oscillation.

24. 11-5 Damped Harmonic Motion However, if the damping is large, it no longer resembles SHM at all. A: underdamping: there are a few small oscillations before the oscillator comes to rest. B: critical damping: this is the fastest way to get to equilibrium. C: overdamping: the system is slowed so much that it takes a long time to get to equilibrium.

25. 11-5 Damped Harmonic Motion There are systems where damping is unwanted, such as clocks and watches. Then there are systems in which it is wanted, and often needs to be as close to critical damping as possible, such as automobile shock absorbers and earthquake protection for buildings.

26. 11-6 Forced Vibrations; Resonance Forced vibrations occur when there is a periodic driving force. This force may or may not have the same period as the natural frequency of the system. If the frequency is the same as the natural frequency, the amplitude becomes quite large. This is called resonance.

27. 11-6 Forced Vibrations; Resonance The sharpness of the resonant peak depends on the damping. If the damping is small (A), it can be quite sharp; if the damping is larger (B), it is less sharp. Like damping, resonance can be wanted or unwanted. Musical instruments and TV/radio receivers depend on it.

28. 11-7 Wave Motion A wave travels along its medium, but the individual particles just move up and down.

29. 11-7 Wave Motion All types of traveling waves transport energy. Study of a single wave pulse shows that it is begun with a vibration and transmitted through internal forces in the medium. Continuous waves start with vibrations too. If the vibration is SHM, then the wave will be sinusoidal.

31. 11-8 Types of Waves: Transverse and Longitudinal The motion of particles in a wave can either be perpendicular to the wave direction (transverse) or parallel to it (longitudinal).

32. 11-8 Types of Waves: Transverse and Longitudinal Sound waves are longitudinal waves:

33. 11-8 Types of Waves: Transverse and Longitudinal Earthquakes produce both longitudinal and transverse waves. Both types can travel through solid material, but only longitudinal waves can propagate through a fluid – in the transverse direction, a fluid has no restoring force. Surface waves are waves that travel along the boundary between two media.

34. 11-9 Energy Transported by Waves Just as with the oscillation that starts it, the energy transported by a wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude. Definition of intensity: The intensity is also proportional to the square of the amplitude: (11-15)

35. 11-9 Energy Transported by Waves If a wave is able to spread out three-dimensionally from its source, and the medium is uniform, the wave is spherical. Just from geometrical considerations, as long as the power output is constant, we see: (11-16b)

36. 11-10 Intensity Related to Amplitude and Frequency By looking at the energy of a particle of matter in the medium of the wave, we find: Then, assuming the entire medium has the same density, we find: Therefore, the intensity is proportional to the square of the frequency and to the square of the amplitude. (11-17)

37. 11-11 Reflection and Transmission of Waves A wave reaching the end of its medium, but where the medium is still free to move, will be reflected (b), and its reflection will be upright. A wave hitting an obstacle will be reflected (a), and its reflection will be inverted.

38. 11-11 Reflection and Transmission of Waves A wave encountering a denser medium will be partly reflected and partly transmitted; if the wave speed is less in the denser medium, the wavelength will be shorter.

39. 11-11 Reflection and Transmission of Waves Two- or three-dimensional waves can be represented by wave fronts, which are curves of surfaces where all the waves have the same phase. Lines perpendicular to the wave fronts are called rays; they point in the direction of propagation of the wave.

40. 11-11 Reflection and Transmission of Waves The law of reflection : the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection .

41. 11-12 Interference; Principle of Superposition The superposition principle says that when two waves pass through the same point, the displacement is the arithmetic sum of the individual displacements. In the figure below, (a) exhibits destructive interference and (b) exhibits constructive interference.

42. 11-12 Interference; Principle of Superposition These figures show the sum of two waves. In (a) they add constructively ; in (b) they add destructively ; and in (c) they add partially destructively .

43. 11-13 Standing Waves; Resonance Standing waves occur when both ends of a string are fixed . In that case, only waves which are motionless at the ends of the string can persist. There are nodes , where the amplitude is always zero, and antinodes , where the amplitude varies from zero to the maximum value.

44. 11-13 Standing Waves; Resonance The frequencies of the standing waves on a particular string are called resonant frequencies. They are also referred to as the fundamental and harmonics .

45. 11-13 Standing Waves; Resonance The wavelengths and frequencies of standing waves are: (11-19a) (11-19b)

46. 11-14 Refraction If the wave enters a medium where the wave speed is different, it will be refracted – its wave fronts and rays will change direction. We can calculate the angle of refraction, which depends on both wave speeds : (11-20)

47. 11-14 Refraction The law of refraction works both ways – a wave going from a slower medium to a faster one would follow the red line in the other direction.

48. 11-15 Diffraction When waves encounter an obstacle , they bend around it, leaving a “shadow region.” This is called diffraction .

49. 11-15 Diffraction The amount of diffraction depends on the size of the obstacle compared to the wavelength . If the obstacle is much smaller than the wavelength, the wave is barely affected (a). If the object is comparable to, or larger than, the wavelength, diffraction is much more significant (b, c, d).

50. 11-16 Mathematical Representation of a Traveling Wave To the left, we have a snapshot of a traveling wave at a single point in time. Below left, the same wave is shown traveling .

51. 11-16 Mathematical Representation of a Traveling Wave A full mathematical description of the wave describes the displacement of any point as a function of both distance and time : (11-22)