The document provides information about human memory, including its three main processes (encoding, storage, and retrieval) and common models used to describe it. It discusses how information is encoded, including what is encoded automatically versus through effort. Effortful encoding techniques like elaboration and distributed practice are emphasized. The capacity and duration of sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory are reviewed. The document also examines how memories are stored biologically in the brain and some disorders that can impact memory storage and retrieval.
3. Section 1
Learning Goals
• Students should be able to answer the following:
1. How do psychologists describe the human memory
system?
2. What information do we encode automatically? What
information do we encode effortfully, and how does the
distribution of practice influence retention?
3. What effortful processing methods aid in forming
memories?
Processes Models Sensory Attention STM LTM Networks
Cues Eyewitness Problems False Forgetting Formation Alzheimer’s
4. Facts or Falsehoods: Memory
1. Memory storage is never automatic, it always takes effort.
2. When people go around a circle saying their names, their
poorest memories are for what was said by the person just
before them.
3. Memory aids are no more useful than simple rehearsal of
information.
4. Only a few people have photographic memory.
5. Although our capacity for storing information is large, we are
still limited in the number of memories we can form.
6. When people learn something while intoxicated, they recall it
best when they are intoxicated again.
7. The hour before sleep is a good time to commit information to
memory.
8. How confident eyewitnesses are about what they saw is an
important predictor of their accuracy.
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6. What is Memory?
LO 6.1 What are the three processes and different models of memory?
Pulling information from
storage
Converting environmental &
mental stimuli into
memorable brain codes
“Holding on” to
encoded information
Encoding
Retrieval Storage
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7. Information Processing Model
LONG TERM
MEMORY
• Click to add Text
• Click to add Text
• Click to add Text
SENSORY
MEMORY
SHORT TERM
MEMORY
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Cues Eyewitness Problems False Forgetting Formation Alzheimer’s
8. Three Box Model of Memory
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Cues Eyewitness Problems False Forgetting Formation Alzheimer’s
9. Problems with Information Processing Model
1. Some information skips the first two stages
and enters long-term memory automatically.
2. Since we cannot focus all the sensory
information in the environment, we select
information (through attention) that is
important to us.
3. The nature of short-term memory is more
complex.
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10. Theory # 2: Working Memory Model
• Developed by Alan
Baddeley in the
1970s
• The key is the central
executive
• Takes into account the
complexities of
memory
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11. How We Encode (Acquire Information)
Automatic Processing
- Space: location of items
- Time: sequence of the day’s events
- Frequency: how many times things
have happened
Effortful Processing
- Maintenance Rehearsal:
- Simple Repeating keeps it STM
- Elaborate Rehearsal:
- Thinking & Making connections to other
learned ideas
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12. Serial Position Effect
• Primacy Effect
– Recall items better at the beginning of the list
– Better in the long run
• Recency Effect
– Recall items better at the end of the list
– Better in the short term
1. TUV
2. ZOF
3. GEK
4. WAV
5. XOZ
6. TIK
7. FUT
8. WIB
9. SAR
10. POZ
11. REY
12. GIJ
Better recall
Poor recall
Better recall
Created by the father of
memory:
Hermann Ebbinghaus
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13. Other Issues in Encoding
Next-in-line Effect
- Tend to not recall information of person before your
turn in line because you focus on our own
performance
Spacing Effect (Distributed Guided Practice)
- We retain information better when it is distributed over
time
- Spread out our learning (cramming = dump and forget)
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14. How We Encode
- Visual Encoding (imagery)
- Acoustic Encoding (sounds)
- Semantic Encoding (meaning)
* We can recall information we can relate to ourselves (self-reference
effect)
Remember the word: nelipot
Group 1: Does it have capital
letters?
Group 2: What does it sound like?
Group 3: The _____ liked walking
on the beach.
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15. Using Mnemonic Devices to Encode
MNEMONIC DEVICES
Memory aids that use organizational devices or imagery to recall
memories
1. METHOD OF LOCI
- Imagine walking through familiar locations and linking each place
with what is to be remembered; used by actors to remember
lines
2. PEG-WORD
- Remember a list through a jingle (1- bun, 2- shoe, 3- tree)
3. ACRONYMS
* HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
• ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet
4. CHUNKING
Cluster information into familiar, manageable units, such as words
into sentences.
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23. Section Assessment
1. When a list of words is learned in order, the words most likely
to be forgotten are those that are:
(A) At the beginning of the list
(B) At the end of the list
(C) In the middle of the list
(D) Hardest to pronounce
(E) Easiest to spell
2. According to the information-possessing view of memory, the
first process of memory involves:
(A) Retrieval
(B) Storage
(C) Rehearsal
(D) Encoding
(E) Transfer
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24. Section 1
Reflect on Learning Goals
• Students should be able to answer the following:
1. How do psychologists describe the human memory system?
2. What information do we encode automatically? What information do
we encode effortfully, and how does the distribution of practice
influence retention?
3. What effortful processing methods aid in forming memories?
Self-Rating Level of Understanding
4.0
I can…
• Identify and describe the terms associated with the learning goal
questions.
• Explain the answer to the learning goal questions with specific details.
• Apply the main concepts of the learning goal to myself or other topics
related to the course.
★ 3.0 ★
I can…
• Identify and describe the terms associated with the learning goal
questions.
• Explain the answer to the learning goal questions with specific details.
2.0
I can…
• Identify and describe the terms associated with the learning goal
questions.
Processes Models Sensory Attention STM LTM Networks
1.0 • I need help in understanding the learning goals!
Cues Eyewitness Problems False Forgetting Formation Alzheimer’s
25. Section 2: Storing Memory
Learning Goals
• Students should be able to answer the following:
1. HWhat is sensory memory?
2. What are the duration and capacity of short-term and
long-term memory?
3. How does the brain store memories?
Processes Models Sensory Attention STM LTM Networks
Cues Eyewitness Problems False Forgetting Formation Alzheimer’s
26. Sensory Memory
• Iconic memory
-momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli,
a photographic or picture-image memory
lasting for a few tenths of a second.
• Echoic memory
-momentary sensory memory of auditory
stimuli
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Cues Eyewitness Problems False Forgetting Formation Alzheimer’s
27. Storage: Short-term Memory
WORKING/SHORT TERM MEMORY
- Lasts about 20-30 seconds with no
interference
- Can hold on average 7 +/- 2 (Miller)
- Slightly better for hearing than
seeing
- Slightly better for digits than letters
- Can retain about 4 chunks of
information without rehearsal
- Chunking: remembering more by
chunking things together:
1-9-4-1-1-8-1-2-1-9-9-3-2-0-0-4
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31. Storage & Brain Changes
Synaptic Changes
- Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) refers to synaptic
enhancement after learning. An increase in
neurotransmitter
release or receptors on the receiving neuron indicates
strengthening of synapse.
Stress Hormones
- Heightening emotions (stress-related or otherwise)
make for stronger memories. Continued stress may
disrupt memory.
Hippocampus
- Neutral center in the limbic system that processes
explicit
memories.
- Damage to the Left: verbal information
- Damage to the Right: visual design & location
Cerebellum
- Neural center in the hindbrain that processes implicit
memories.
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32. Biological Bases of Memory
• Amnesia —severe memory loss
• Retrograde amnesia —inability to remember past
episodic information; common after head injury
• Anterograde amnesia —inability to form new
memories; related to hippocampus damage
• Korsakoff’s Syndrome – has both retrograde and
Anterograde amnesia due to excessive use of
alcohol
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33. Flashbulb Memory
A unique and highly emotional moment may
give rise to a clear, strong, and persistent
memory called flashbulb memory. However,
this memory is not free from errors.
President Bush being told of 9/11 attack.
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34. Episodic Memories
• Memories of episodes
of our lives.
– Example: Going on a
date
– Getting hurt while
doing an activity
– Graduation
– Accidents
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35. Storage: Types of Long-term Memory
Having read a story once, people with hippocampus damage will
read it faster the second time, but will not remember what they have
read. Same thing happens for where is Waldo findings.
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36. Explicit Memories
• Episodic Memories
– the portion of
declarative memory
that stores personal
experiences.
• Semantic Memories
– stores the basic
meanings of words
and concepts.
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Cues Eyewitness Problems False Forgetting Formation Alzheimer’s
37. Storage Review
Feature
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
LTM
Encoding Copy Phonemic Semantic
Capacity Unlimited
7±2
Chunks
Very Large
Duration 0.25 sec. 20 sec. Years
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38. Section 2: Storing Memories
Reflect on Learning Goals
• Students should be able to answer the following:
1. How do psychologists describe the human memory What is sensory
memory?
2. What are the duration and capacity of short-term and long-term
memory?
3. How does the brain store memories?
Self-Rating Level of Understanding
4.0
I can…
• Identify and describe the terms associated with the learning goal
questions.
• Explain the answer to the learning goal questions with specific details.
• Apply the main concepts of the learning goal to myself or other topics
related to the course.
★ 3.0 ★
I can…
• Identify and describe the terms associated with the learning goal
questions.
• Explain the answer to the learning goal questions with specific details.
2.0
I can…
• Identify and describe the terms associated with the learning goal
questions.
Processes Models Sensory Attention STM LTM Networks
1.0 • I need help in understanding the learning goals!
Cues Eyewitness Problems False Forgetting Formation Alzheimer’s
39. Section 3: Retrieval of Memories
Learning Goals
• Students should be able to answer the following:
1. How do we get information out of memory?
2. How do external contexts and internal emotions
influence memory retrieval?
Processes Models Sensory Attention STM LTM Networks
Cues Eyewitness Problems False Forgetting Formation Alzheimer’s
40. Section 3 Retrieval of Memories
Reflect on Learning Goals
• Students should be able to answer the following:
1. How do we get information out of memory?
2. How do external contexts and internal emotions influence memory
retrieval?
Self-Rating Level of Understanding
4.0
I can…
• Identify and describe the terms associated with the learning goal
questions.
• Explain the answer to the learning goal questions with specific details.
• Apply the main concepts of the learning goal to myself or other topics
related to the course.
★ 3.0 ★
I can…
• Identify and describe the terms associated with the learning goal
questions.
• Explain the answer to the learning goal questions with specific details.
2.0
I can…
• Identify and describe the terms associated with the learning goal
questions.
1.0 • I need help in understanding the learning goals!
Processes Models Sensory Attention STM LTM Networks
Cues Eyewitness Problems False Forgetting Formation Alzheimer’s
41. Section 4: Forgetting Theories
Learning Goals
• Students should be able to answer the following:
1. Why do we forget?
Processes Models Sensory Attention STM LTM Networks
Cues Eyewitness Problems False Forgetting Formation Alzheimer’s
42. Section 4: Forgetting Theories
Reflect on Learning Goals
• Students should be able to answer the following:
1. Why do we forget?
Self-Rating Level of Understanding
4.0
I can…
• Identify and describe the terms associated with the learning goal
questions.
• Explain the answer to the learning goal questions with specific details.
• Apply the main concepts of the learning goal to myself or other topics
related to the course.
★ 3.0 ★
I can…
• Identify and describe the terms associated with the learning goal
questions.
• Explain the answer to the learning goal questions with specific details.
2.0
I can…
• Identify and describe the terms associated with the learning goal
questions.
1.0 • I need help in understanding the learning goals!
Processes Models Sensory Attention STM LTM Networks
Cues Eyewitness Problems False Forgetting Formation Alzheimer’s
43. Section 5: Misinformation in Memory
Learning Goals
• Students should be able to answer the following:
1. How do misinformation, imagination and source
amnesia influence our memory construction?
2. What is the controversy related to claims of repressed
and recovered memories?
Processes Models Sensory Attention STM LTM Networks
Cues Eyewitness Problems False Forgetting Formation Alzheimer’s
44. Section 5: Misinformation in Memories
Reflect on Learning Goals
• Students should be able to answer the following:
1. How do misinformation, imagination and source amnesia influence
our memory construction?
2. What is the controversy related to claims of repressed and recovered
memories?
Self-Rating Level of Understanding
4.0
I can…
• Identify and describe the terms associated with the learning goal
questions.
• Explain the answer to the learning goal questions with specific details.
• Apply the main concepts of the learning goal to myself or other topics
related to the course.
★ 3.0 ★
I can…
• Identify and describe the terms associated with the learning goal
questions.
• Explain the answer to the learning goal questions with specific details.
2.0
I can…
• Identify and describe the terms associated with the learning goal
questions.
1.0 • I need help in understanding the learning goals!
Processes Models Sensory Attention STM LTM Networks
Cues Eyewitness Problems False Forgetting Formation Alzheimer’s
