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Jarrar: Introduction to logic and Logic Agents
1.
Jarrar © 2013
1 Dr. Mustafa Jarrar Sina Institute, University of Birzeit mjarrar@birzeit.edu www.jarrar.info Lecture Notes on Logic & Logic Agents University of Birzeit, Palestine 2013 Artificial Intelligence Logic & Logic Agents Chapter 7 (& Some background)
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Jarrar © 2013
2 Watch this lecture and download the slides from http://jarrar-courses.blogspot.com/2011/11/artificial-intelligence-fall-2011.html
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Jarrar © 2013
3 This lecture General background about Logic, needed in the proceeding lectures: • History of Logic, and a quick review of logic. • Propositional Logic • Logic Agents • Logical inference = reasoning Lecture Keywords: Logic, History of Logic, knowledge representation, Propositional Logic, Logic agents, Knowledge- Based Agent, Validity of arguments, Tarski’s world, Tarski’s Semantics, Wumpus World Game, Inference, Deduction, Reasoning, Entailment, Logical Implication, Soundness, Completeness ، satisfiable, Unsatisfiable, Validity, Falsifiable, tautology. ،االستنتاج ،المعرفة تمثيل ،المنطق تاريخ ،الشكلي المنطق ،المنطق الحدود ،المنطقية الحجمل صحة ،االستنباط
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Jarrar © 2013
4 What is logic? • A logic allows the axiomatization of the domain information, and the drawing of conclusions from that information. – Syntax – Semantics – Logical inference = reasoning Computer Science deals with logic as a tool or a language to represent knowledge (even it is not true), and reason about it, i.e., draw conclusions automatically (…reaching intelligence). Philosophy is more concerned with the truth of axioms, in the real world
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Jarrar © 2013
5 Some History of Logic Complete Reasoning Scalable Reasoning! 1037 1198 ?2001 322 BC Automated Reasoning 1960s
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Jarrar © 2013
6 Is it a valid argument? Also called: Query Review Of Propositional Logic Reasoning Validity of Arguments Example from [1]
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Jarrar © 2013
7 Is it a valid argument? Also called: Query Review Of Propositional Logic Reasoning Validity of Arguments Example from [1]
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Jarrar © 2013
8 Quick Review: (First-Order-Logic) Tarski’s World example Describe Tarski’s world using universal and external quantifiers Example from [1]
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Jarrar © 2013
9 Quick Review: (First-Order-Logic) Universal and Extensional Quantifiers Example There is an item that was chosen by every student. true There is a student who chose every available item. false There is a student who chose at least one item from every station. true Every student chose at least one item from every station false. Example from [1]
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Jarrar © 2013
10 Why Logic: Motivation Example • Logic allows us to represent knowledge precisely (Syntax and Semantics). • However, representation alone is not enough. x PhDStudent(x) Student (x) x Employee(x) Person (x) x Student(x) Person (x) x PhDStudent(x) Employee (x) Person StudentEmployee PhD Student • We also need to process this knowledge and make use of it, i.e. Logical inference = (Reasoning).
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Jarrar © 2013
11 x PhDStudent(x) Student (x) x Employee(x) Person (x) x Student(x) Person (x) x PhDStudent(x) Employee (x) Person StudentEmployee PhD Student x PhDStudent(x) Person (x) How to process the above axioms to know that an axiom can be derived from another axiom. Why Logic: Motivation Example Reasoning:
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Jarrar © 2013
12 Person StudentEmployee PhD Student How to process the above axioms to know that an axiom can be derived from another axiom. Find contradictions (satisfiability) x Student(x) Employee (x) = …etc. x PhDStudent(x) Student (x) x Employee(x) Person (x) x Student(x) Person (x) x PhDStudent(x) Employee (x) Why Logic: Motivation Example Reasoning:
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Jarrar © 2013
13 Ch.7 Logic Agents Most material is based on and improved from [2]
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Jarrar © 2013
15 A Knowledge-Based Agent • A knowledge-based agent consists of a knowledge base (KB) and an inference engine (IE). • A knowledge-base is a set of representations of what one knows about the world (objects and classes of objects, the fact about objects, relationships among objects, etc.) • Each individual representation is called a sentence. • The sentences are expressed in a knowledge representation language. • Examples of sentences – The moon is made of green cheese – If A is true then B is true – A is false – All humans are mortal – Confucius is a human
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Jarrar © 2013
16 A Knowledge-Based Agent • The Inference engine derives new sentences from the input and KB • The inference mechanism depends on representation in KB • The agent operates as follows: – 1. It receives percepts from environment – 2. It computes what action it should perform (by IE and KB) – 3. It performs the chosen action (some actions are simply inserting inferred new facts into KB). Knowledge Base Inference Engine Input from environment Output (actions) Learning (KB update)
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Jarrar © 2013
18 The Wumpus World • Demo (Video) • Performance measure – gold +1000, death -1000 – -1 per step, -10 for using the arrow • Environment – Squares adjacent to wumpus are smelly – Squares adjacent to pit are breezy – Glitter iff gold is in the same square – Shooting kills wumpus if you are facing it – Shooting uses up the only arrow – Grabbing picks up gold if in same square – Releasing drops the gold in same square • Sensors: Stench, Breeze, Glitter, Bump, Scream • Actuators: Left turn, Right turn, Forward, Grab, Release, Shoot
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Jarrar © 2013
19 Entailment –Logical Implication • Entailment means that one thing follows from another: KB ╞ α • Knowledge base KB entails sentence α if and only if α is true in all worlds where KB is true - E.g., the KB containing “the Giants won” and “the Reds won” entails “Either the Giants won or the Reds won” - E.g., x+y = 4 entails 4 = x+y - Entailment is a relationship between sentences (i.e., Syntax) that is based on Semantics. KB α?
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Jarrar © 2013
20 What is a “Model”? (in Logic) • Logicians typically think in terms of models, which are formally structured worlds with respect to which truth can be evaluated. • We say m is a model of a sentence α if α is true in m • M(α) is the set of all models of α • Then KB ╞ α iff M(KB) M(α) E.g. KB = “Giants won” and “Reds won” α = “Giants won” Or α = “Red won” Or α = either Giants or Red won
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Jarrar © 2013
21 Wumpus Models
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22 Wumpus Models • KB = Wumpus-world rules + observations
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23 Wumpus Models • KB = wumpus-world rules + observations • α1 = "[1,2] is safe", KB ╞ α1, proved by model checking
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24 Another example • Construct a model satisfying the following = x (Circle(x) Above (x, f)) • Model: Circle(a) Circle(c) Triangle(f) a in [3,5] c in [2,4] f in [3,3] a c f We say that this model is an interpretation for
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Jarrar © 2013
25 Properties of Inference Procedures Inference = Deduction = Reasoning • KB ├i α = sentence α can be derived from KB by procedure i • Soundness: i is sound if whenever KB ├i α, it is also true that KB╞ α • Completeness: i is complete if whenever KB╞ α, it is also true that KB ├i α • Preview: we will define a logic (first-order logic) which is expressive enough to say almost anything of interest, and for which there exists a sound and complete inference procedure. • That is, the procedure will answer any question whose answer follows from what is known by the KB. KB ├i α
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Jarrar © 2013
26 Propositional logic
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27 Propositional logic: Syntax • Propositional logic is the simplest logic –illustrates basic ideas
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Jarrar © 2013
28 Propositional Logic: Semantics Each model specifies true/false for each proposition symbol E.g. P1,2 P2,2 P3,1 false true false With these symbols, 8 (= 23) possible models, can be enumerated automatically. Rules for evaluating truth with respect to a model m: S is true iff S is false S1 S2 is true iff S1 is true and S2 is true S1 S2 is true iff S1is true or S2 is true S1 S2 is true iff S1 is false or S2 is true i.e., is false iff S1 is true and S2 is false S1 S2 is true iff S1S2 is true andS2S1 is true Simple recursive process evaluates an arbitrary sentence, e.g., P1,2 (P2,2 P3,1) = true (true false) = true true = true
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29 A simple knowledge base Let Pi,j be true if there is a pit in [i, j]. Let Bi,j be true if there is a breeze in [i, j]. Knowledge Base: P1,1 There is no pit in [1, 1] B1,1 (P1,2 P2,1) B1,1 is breezy if and only if there is a pit in a neighboring square B2,1 (P1,1 P2,2 P3,1) These sentences are true in all wumpus worlds. B1,1 B2,1
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30 Validity and Satisfiability A sentence is valid if it is true in all models, e.g., True, A A, A A, (A (A B)) B Validity is connected to inference via the Deduction Theorem: KB ╞ α if and only if (KB α) is valid A sentence is satisfiable if it is true in some model e.g., A B, C A sentence is unsatisfiable if it is true in no models e.g., A A Satisfiability is connected to inference via the following: KB ╞ α if and only if (KB α) is unsatisfiable Person Student Employe e PhD Student
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31 Validity and Satisfiability An interpretation I is a model of α: I ╞ α A formula α is • Satisfiable, if there is some I that satisfies α , • Unsatisfiable, if α is not satisfiable, • Falsifiable, if there is some I that does not satisfy α , • Valid (i.e., a tautology), if every I is a model of α . Two formulas are logically equivalent (α ), if for all I : I ╞ α iff I ╞
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32 References [1] Discrete Mathematics with Applications by Susanna S. Epp (3rd Edition) [2] S. Russell and P. Norvig: Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach Prentice Hall, 2003, Second Edition [3] Enrico Franconi: Lecture Notes on Description Logics http://www.inf.unibz.it/~franconi/dl/course/slides/intro/intro.pdf [4] Franz Kurfess: Lecture Notes on Artificial Intelligence http://users.csc.calpoly.edu/~fkurfess/Courses/Artificial-Intelligence/F09/Slides/6B-Logic.ppt