2. 2008] SOLER ET AL.: CABOCLOS’ FOREST USE IN BRAZIL 61
eastern Brazil (Parker 1989). In spite of the differ- therefore done by middlemen. The village has a
ences between natives and caboclos, widespread primary school and a public health post with a
similarities indicate commonalities of occupation precarious service record and an overall lack of
and resource use (German 2001). Nevertheless, medicine. The Christian faith predominates; there
caboclos are not as colorful as indigenous people, is a Catholic church and an evangelical church.
and thus may hold less interest for researchers, The people live mainly from fishing, hunting,
which may explain why caboclo knowledge, use, subsistence agriculture (cassava), and harvesting
and management of natural resources in the forest products. The main source of income during
Amazon has been poorly studied (Parker 1989). the rainy season comes from the sale of Brazil nuts
The aims of this study were to understand and (Bertholletia excelsa) and a liana (Heteropsis spp).
quantify plant use of individuals with dbh (diam- During the dry season, ornamental fish make up
eter breast high) ≥ 10 cm in 1 ha of terra firme the bulk of trade. Craftwork such as baskets and
forest by the caboclos of Caicubi village, Caracarai mats made mostly of Ischnosiphon sp. and Philo-
Municipality, in the state of Roraima, Brazil. dendron sp. are sold occasionally.
The first inhabitants of Caicubí village arrived
in the 1940s to extract Brazil nuts. More people
Study Area gradually arrived from other regions of the
Caicubi village is located on Caicubi Creek, a Amazon, mainly from the upper and middle
tributary of the Jufari River, at the junction of the Negro and lower Solimões rivers and other areas
rivers Negro and Branco (01°01′43″S; 62°05′21″W; in Roraima. The main language is Portuguese,
Fig. 1), Caracarai Municipality, in the state of but the oldest inhabitants who came from the
Roraima. There are 400 habitants and 72 families upper Negro River also speak the “Língua Geral,”
in the village. The nearest towns are Barcelos (12 h which is common in that part of the Amazon
by boat), Manaus (36 h by boat), and Caracaraí (Ricardo et al. 2005).
(on the Branco River, 70 h by boat), which makes Study area characteristics, geomorphology, and
trade between village and town difficult. Trading is climate, as well as floristic and structural analyses
Fig. 1. Location of the village of Caicubi, Caracaraí municipality, Roraima, Brazil.
3. 62 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL
of the terra firme forests, are found in Soler- Sample collection and interviews took place in two
Alarcon and Peixoto (2007). stages. The first stage focused on 0.5 ha, and six
informants were taken to the plot and questioned
about names, uses, and plant parts utilized (dbh≥
Methods 10 cm). The second stage focused on the other
0.5 ha, and here also there were six informants.
Methodology was adapted from Phillips and
However, five of these were different from those in
Gentry (1993a, b). It was based on informant
the first stage because, during the second stage, all
consensus, but varies in that (1) data analysis used
but one of the informants from the first group were
scientific names rather than common names due to
busy tending their crops or were off fishing or
the great variation in the latter between informants,
hunting. A total of 11 informants (nine men and
and (2) informants were not chosen randomly—
two women) from 34 to 74 years of age were
they were selected for their knowledge of the forest interviewed. Each informant was interviewed
as recommended by village inhabitants.
alone so that his or her responses would not be
Two visits were made between November 2003 influenced by the others.
and February 2004, for a total of 56 days spent in
The data was analyzed from an etic perspective
the village. The first week was used to become
that categorizes and organizes the ethnobotanical
familiar with the trails around the village and to get
data according to the researcher’s point of view
to know the forest. A trail used by the inhabitants to
(Zent 1996).
extract nontimber forest products was chosen for
Uses were grouped into eight categories:
this study. Along this trail, a 1 h plot (50×200 m)
construction, technology, medicine, trade, food,
was laid out about 2 km from the village.
crafts, fuel, and others. The categories construc-
All trees, lianas, and hemiepiphytes (dbh≥10 cm)
tion, medicine, food, and technology are defined
in the plot were numbered. A sample from one
according to Galeano (2000). The crafts category
individual of each species was collected, pressed, and
follows Pinedo-Vazquez et al. 1990, the fuel
later preserved in alcohol; a few branches were
category follows Balée (1987), and the others
placed beside the tree to help the informants in
category, to which “fruits useful for game” was
specimen identification.
added, follows Prance et al. (1987).
The “walk-in-the woods” methodology was used
The categories are defined as follows:
(Alexiades 1996), whereby each informant is asked
to give the name and uses of each specimen Construction: houses, posts, and fences
previously tagged in the plot. In order to reduce
Technology: material for fishing and
fatigue during the interviews, the informant was
questioned about each species but not each hunting, agricultural tools,
specimen in the plot. If a species occurred more cooking utensils, canoes,
than once in the plot, the informant was ques- furniture, leaves for smoking
tioned about that species until it became clear that Medicine: substances used to cure or
his response did not vary. An event was defined as alleviate illness
the process of asking one informant on 1 day Trade: economic use
about the uses of each species (Phillips and Gentry Food: food for human beings
1993a). “This means if in 1 day one species was Crafts: bark for dying fibers used in
encountered more than once, the informants’ weaving, slats for finishing
responses were combined with the other previous baskets, leaves for weaving,
interviews of that species, with the exception when
seeds for making rings and
the informants gave a different name to the same
species on the same day, this was considered earrings
another event” (Phillips and Gentry 1993a). Fuel: firewood, charcoal, and volatile
Voucher specimens were deposited in the herbar- resins
ium of Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro (RB), Others: ritualistic plants, toys, fruits to
and duplicates of fertile specimens in the herbarium feed wild animals
of Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia
(INPA). See Soler-Alarcon and Peixoto (2007) for The species’ use value was calculated according to
J. G. Soler’s collection numbers. Phillips and Gentry (1993a) where the use value
4. 2008] SOLER ET AL.: CABOCLOS’ FOREST USE IN BRAZIL 63
(UV) of each species s for each informant i is
P bark (25% each); and crafts—wood, fruits and
estimated as UVis ¼ Uis =nis ; where Uis is the seeds, leaves and spines (one use each, 25%).
number of uses mentioned in each event by Phillips et al. (1994) stresses that the total
informant i; nis is the number of events for species number of useful species and the number of uses
s with informant i. per species in a given area is a very crude measure
The overall use value for each species s, UVs, is of the cultural importance of forests and that these
P results must be interpreted with care. This is seen
calculated as UVs ¼ UVis =ns ; where ns is the
total number of informants interviewed for species s. if one observes the inconsistent pattern of use
The use value for each family (FUV) was values of the 30 species with the greatest number
calculated according to Phillips and Gentry (1993a) of uses cited by informants (Fig. 3). Some species
P are used by only one or a few informants, while
as FUV ¼ UVs nf ; where UVs is the use value
others are used by all the informants. These
of each species; nf is the number of species in the dissimilarities show that almost all species have
family. occasional uses, but only a few species are intensely
used (Phillips et al. 1994).
Results and Discussion Many species (42%) have use values between
In the 1-ha plot, 98% of the families (42 out of 0.5 and 1.5 (Fig. 4). High UVs are concen-
43), 98% of the species (185 out of 189), and 99% trated in a few species. Average UV for all species
of the individuals with dbh≥10 cm (537 out of is 1.59. By use category, average UVs are as follows:
541) were used by the Caicubi village informants. fuel—0.43; technology—0.43; construction—
When the data are analyzed excluding the fuel 0.39; food—0.14; medicine—0.13; crafts—
category, which includes the greatest number of 0.02; trade—0.02; and others—0.04. The species
species and individuals, 95% of the species (180), with the highest UV was Bertholletia excelsa,
98% of the individuals, and 93 % of the families are followed by Pouteria glomerata, Eschweilera
cited as being useful. pedicellata, Eschweilera coriacea, Euterpe precatoria,
A total of 1,763 events and an average of 5.4 uses Licania hirsute, and Bocageopsis multiflora. For the
per species were recorded. A total of 109 different list of species with UV, relative abundance,
uses were registered for the species found in the plot number of events, and number of informants,
(Table 1). Bertholletia excelsa was cited as having contact the authors.
the greatest number of uses (14) (Fig. 2). Four species of lianas (dbh≥10 cm) were found
The 109 uses (Table 2) are distributed in the in the plot with one individual each. Average UV
categories as follows: technology has the highest for these species was 1.12; 48% of this value is
number of uses (40%), follow by medicine (27%), attributed to the medicine category, 33% to the
construction (8%), food (6%), trade (3%), fuel food category, 11% to the technology category,
(3%), crafts (3%), and others (6%). Wood is the and 8% to the fuel category. There were two
most intensely used resource, involved in 26% of species of hemiepiphytes, each with one individ-
the uses cited. This is followed by exudates (latex, ual. Average UV for these species was 0.42, and
resins, and saps—22%), leaves and spines (21%), 100% of this value is attributed to the medicine
bark (15%), fruits and seeds (13%), apical category. For trees, the average UV for the species
meristem (4%), roots (2%), and stipules (2%). was 1.61 and the most important categories were
In the technology category, wood (36%) plus technology, fuel, and construction.
leaves and spines (34%) together constitute 70% of The categories that make the largest contribu-
the uses (Table 2). In the construction category, tion to the total UV are fuel, technology, and
wood is the most intensely used resource (88% of construction. These together contribute 78% of
the uses). In the trade category, wood, fruits and the total UV (Table 3). It should be pointed out
seeds, exudates, and the apical meristem are that while 91% of the useful species in the plot
equally used (25% each). In the medicine category: are used for fuel, 83% for technology, and 75%
bark and exudates together provide 22 different for construction, very few species are found
uses (74%—11 uses each). Percentages in the exclusively in one category (Table 4).
remaining categories were as follows: food—fruits The categories crafts, trade, and others have
and seeds, exudates, and apical meristem (28.6% low UV percentages and low number of species
each); fuel—wood, fruits and seeds, exudates, and used (Tables 3, 4), which shows that the species
5. 64 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL
Table 1. USES OF PLANTS FROM THE FOREST BY THE CABOCLOS OF CAICUBI, RORAIMA, BRAZIL.
Categories Uses
Construction Girders, traverses, supports, crossbeams
Bark to make walls
Sawed wood for walls and roofs
Leaves for thatching
Round wood or split trunks for fences
Split trunk for oven structure, house construction
Plywood
House foundations and beams
Posts
Medicine Sap for muscular sprains
Root for anemia
Resin for headache
Stipule to mature furuncle
Resin as anti-inflammatory
Operculum to treat terygiums in the eye
Sap, antidote for snake bite
Bark, antidote for snake bite
Bark for diarrhea
Seeds to cure appendicitis
Leaves to improve dogs’ senseof smell for game
Bark to cure the kidney
Anti-inflammatory sap for toothache
Sap as antiseptic and to aid scar formation
Sap used to coagulate
Seeds used to treat kidney stones
Latex used as venom
Sap to stop vomiting
Bark to cure hemorrhoids
Bark to stop bleeding in abortions
Bark for remedy for children’s mouth viruses
Bark as remedy for mycosis of the skin
Bark as remedy for scab in dogs
Stipule used in a beverage as a diuretic
Bark used against cancer
Leaves used in the bath to make children stop crying
Latex to kill louses
Bark to kill louses
Sap to heal bloodshed
Bark to help cure diabetes
Fuel Firewood and charcoal
Resin as fire-starter
Bark to make fire
Pericarp of the Brazilian nut for charcoal
Crafts Leaves to weave baskets and hats
Seeds to make rings and earrings
Split trunk for baskets’ edges
Inner bark to dye fibers
Food Fruits
Cabbage palm
Larva that grows in the apical meristem
(continued)
6. 2008] SOLER ET AL.: CABOCLOS’ FOREST USE IN BRAZIL 65
Table 1. (continued).
Categories Uses
Sap as beverage
Seeds to eat
Latex as beverage
Leaves for making tea
Technology Wood to make tool handles (hoes, axes, machetes, knifes, plow, scythes)
Bark for weaving, belt for climbing trees, rope
Covers
Furniture
Thorns to kill crickets for fishing
Petiole to make kites
Petiole to make arrowheads
Petiole to gather latex
Bows
Fishing pole
Resin to repel bats and mosquitoes
Resin to caulk canoes
Canoe and boat construction
Plug for water bomb
Leaves to wrap dry meat to protect from flies
Bark to dye fishing lines
Split trunk to make tools for fishing
Latex used as glue
Buttresses used as tables for washing clothes, helm boats, and canoe paddles
Fruit used as mortar
Split trunk to make structure for head lamp
Fishing and hunting spears
Leaves to cover limekiln to make charcoal
Trunk used as small roller to slide boats
Latex used as venom for hunting
Rafts
Thorn to remove another thorn
Seeds for cultivation
Wag (Spanish fan)
Leaves used for manioc mass to prevent sticking in the press
Rifle butt
Leaves put on the floor on which to tear off the skin of game
Petiole used as a whistle to call the tapir
Latex to make rubber
Old trunk used as a humus fertilizer for cultivated plants
Leaves used as sandpaper
A larva that grows in the apical meristem used as bait
Leaves put over manioc mass with nuts to help with toasting
Leaves to smoke
To barbecue fish
Fruits to bait hooks
Leaves to make soap
Fruit used as fish poison (timbó)
Bark (caraipe) to make mud oven
Others Smoke-curing
Fruits used for game
Trunk to make toys
Resin to burn when storm comes
(continued)
7. 66 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL
Table 1. (continued).
Categories Uses
Resin to repel bad spirits
Leaves to harm people
Bark to attract women
Trade Seeds
Resin and latex
Cabbage palm
Phallic branch to sell to tourists
offer the caboclos few resources in these categories Strelitziaceae also have high total UVs (second and
(if only individuals with dbh≥10 cm are sam- third place, respectively), represented by one species
pled). However, we know that species of Heteropsis each. Olacaceae is first in the construction category
(cipó-titica) and Ischnosiphon (arumã), commonly and sixth in the fuel category; Strelitziaceae is first
found in the plot, but with dbh≤10 cm, are in the medicine category and in fourth in the
widely used for crafts and trade. It would be construction category. Lecythidaceae (fourth place
interesting to take a sample with smaller dbh to in total UV) is prominent in various categories:
assess the results in these categories. trade, technology, crafts, construction, and food.
Several families are prominent in various cate-
Families and Species gories, showing a wide range of uses. Arecaceae and
Arecaceae has the highest UV of all the Lecythidaceae are prominent in six of the eight
families, a result also found in studies of four categories; Sapotaceae in five, Celastraceae in four,
Indian communities and one mestizo community and Burseraceae in three. Olacaceae, Strelitzeaceae,
in the Amazon (Prance et al. 1987; Phillips and Annonaceae, Lauraceae and Chrysobalanaceae are
Gentry 1993a). Here, this is due to the fact that prominent in two categories, which shows that
this family is used across the board, with high these families have more specific uses.
UVs in the categories food, crafts, trade, medi- Bertholletia excelsa had the highest UV of all
cine, construction, and technology. Olacaceae and species. It was prominent in the categories trade
20 %
18 %
20 %
16 %
14 %
13 %
Percentage of spp.
12 % 11 %
10 % 10 % 10 %
10 %
8%
8%
6%
6%
5%
4% 3%
2%
2% 2%
1% 1% 1%
0%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Numbers of uses
Fig. 2. Diversity of plant use with DBH≥10 cm of 1 ha of terra firme forest indicated by the caboclos of the
village of Caicubi, Caracaraí, RR, Brazil.
8. 2008] SOLER ET AL.: CABOCLOS’ FOREST USE IN BRAZIL 67
Table 2. DISTRIBUTION OF PLANT PART USE IN CATEGORIES (CONS, CONSTRUCTION; TRADE; MED, MEDICINE;
FOOD; TECH, TECHNOLOGY; FUEL; CRAFT, CRAFTS; OTH, OTHERS) BY THE CABOCLOS OF CAICUBI, RORAIMA,
BRAZIL.
Part Used Cons Trade Med Food Tech Fuel Craft Oth Total Percent total
Wood 8 1 0 0 16 1 1 1 28 26
Fruits, seeds 0 1 3 2 5 1 1 1 14 13
Exudates 0 1 11 2 4 1 0 3 22 20
Leaves and spines 1 0 2 1 15 0 1 1 21 19
Bark 0 0 11 0 3 1 1 1 17 15
Roots 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
Apical meristem 0 1 0 2 1 0 0 0 4 4
Stipule 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 2
Total uses 9 4 30 7 44 4 4 7 109 100
(first place), medicine (third place), and food (eighth (Prance et al. 1987). In Caicubí village, it is used
place). Bocageopsis multiflora (seventh place in total to build houses (posts, cross beams, tie beams,
UV) stood out only in the technology category uprights, and supports) and for poles and fence
(fifth place). The other eight species with the posts. Of the ten most important species in this
highest UV were prominent in two categories each. category, four are Lauraceae (Licaria guianensis,
Ocotea nigrescens, Aniba aff. williamsii, and Ocotea
CONSTRUCTION sp. E), a very important plant family for the
Of the 139 species included in this category timber industry of the Amazon (Vicentini 1999).
(75% of the useful species), Minquartia guianeneis The wood of another important species, Croton
had the highest UV. This species is well known lanjouwensis, is highly valued for house construc-
throughout the Amazon and used extensively in tion (posts, tie beams, and crossbeams). However,
construction. It is also the most important species the informants mentioned that it is not resistant
in the category construction for the native Tembé to humidity and is mainly used for interiors.
16
Total UV
14
Total nu
12
10
Values
8
6
4
2
0
Oenocarpus bacaba
Bertholetia excelsa
Eschweilera coriacea
Iryanthera juruensis
Virola theiodora
Licaria guianensis
Euterpe precatoria
Eschweilera pedicellata
Pouteria durlandii
Eschweilera grandiflora
Licania caudata
Pourouma cf. tomentosa
Ocotea rhodophylla
Guatteria sp1
Goupia glabra
Pouteria glomerata
Attalea maripa
Licania hirsuta
Inga alba
Crepidospermum cf. rhoifolium
Xylopia aff. Polyantha
Pouteria caimito
Helicostylis tomentosa
Xylopia amazonica
Bocageopsis multiflora
Symphonia globulifera
Cecropia distachya
Ocotea nigrescens
Gustavia augusta
Aniba aff. Williamsii
Fig. 3. Thirty most used species with their respective use value (Total UV) mentioned by the caboclos of the
village of Caicubi, Caracaraí, RR, Brazil. (Total nu, total number of uses mentioned by all the informants).
9. 68 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL
25 %
20 %
20 %
Percentage of useful spp.
15 %
15 %
12 %
11 %
10 %
8%
6%
5%
2%
1% 1%
0% 1%
0%
0,17 - 05
0,5 - 1
1 - 1,5
1,5 - 2
2 - 2,5
2,5 - 3
3 - 3,5
3,5 - 4
4 - 4,5
4,5 - 5
5 - 5,5
5,5 - 6
Use V
alue
Fig. 4. Distribution of use values (UV) for the 185 useful species found in 1 ha of terra firme forest indicated
by the caboclos of the village of Caicubi, Caracaraí, RR, Brazil.
Pouteria glomerata and P. guianensis are used for species are also used to make spears and tool
building houses and for planks, uprights, and handles (for hoes, axes, and cultivators). The bark
fence posts. provides good-quality cordage (embira), used for
binding and for making a type of sling (peconha)
TECHNOLOGY used to climb trees and handles for the baskets that
Of the 153 species included in this category are used to carry cassava. Boards from these species
(83% of the useful species), Eschweilera pedicellata are used to make canoes, but not of good quality.
and E. coriacea have the highest UVs. From the Pouteria glomerata has very durable wood, cited by
trunks of these two species come thin pliable pieces the informants as one of the best for making tool
used to make fishing tools known as “cacuri” and handles, especially axe handles, and also for making
“rapiche.” Strips of lath are also used to tie a light spears and harpoons. It is also used to make boats
to the head during fishing and hunting activities, because it lasts a long time in the water.
to weave together with leaves of Geonoma spp. for Other important species in this category are
roofing, and in structuring mud ovens (included in Fusaea longifolia and Bocageopsis multiflora. The
the construction category). The stems of these two stems are used to make tool handles (for axes, hoes,
Table 4. DISTRIBUTION OF USEFUL SPECIES AMONG
Table 3. CONTRIBUTION OF USE VALUES PER CATEGORY PLANT USE CATEGORIES FOUND IN 1 HA OF TERRA FIRME
FOUND IN 1 HA. OF TERRA FIRME FOREST USE BY THE FORESTS BY THE CABOCLOS OF THE VILLAGE OF CAICUBI,
CABOCLOS OF THE VILLAGE OF CAICUBI, CARACARAÍ, CARACARAÍ, RR, BRAZIL.
RR, BRAZIL.
All species used Exclusively used
Use Category Percent of use values Use category in this category in this category
Fuel 27 Fuel 91% 3%
Technology 27 Technology 83% 0%
Construction 24 Construction 75% 1%
Food 9 Food 35% 1%
Medicine 8 Medicine 45% 2%
Others 3 Others 12% 0%
Crafts 1 Crafts 7% 0%
Trade 1 Trade 11% 0%
10. 2008] SOLER ET AL.: CABOCLOS’ FOREST USE IN BRAZIL 69
and cultivators) and fishing rods; the bark is used as macrocarpa has the highest UV. The bark is used
cordage (embira) to make basket handles and to to treat various skin diseases and diarrhea. It also
bind things together. It should be noted that provides a stimulant for washing the body, and is
cordage is only taken from young trees of B. used to treat mange in dogs. Among the Waimiri-
multiflora. The trunk of Licania hirsuta is used to Atroari Indians, the bark is used to poison fish
make tool handles and spears, while the bark is used (Milliken et al. 1992). The sap of Phenakospermum
as a dye to keep fish lines from rotting. Licaria guyanense is used as a coagulant to heal wounds
guianensis is used to make canoes and paddles, and and to treat snake-bite (it is taken orally and
also for tool and spear handles. Bertholletia excelsa is applied topically to the bite area). The bark of the
important in this category because the bark is used Brazil-nut tree (Bertholletia excelsa) is employed to
with latex to waterproof canoes; the bark of young treat diabetes, body aches and pains, and diarrhea.
specimens is also used as cordage. The trunk is The young roots of Euterpe precatoria are used to
sometimes used to make canoes and paddles. Three treat anemia. The latex of Sorocea guilleminiana is a
Lauraceae species, Ocotea rhodophylla, O. nigrescens, strong poison (if swallowed, it can kill a person)
and Licaria guianensis, are commonly used to make that is used to eliminate lice and to treat skin
canoes and other types of boats, paddles, tool and diseases. The latex of Odontadenia cognata and
spear handles, and furniture. Although Licania Clusia grandiflora is employed to treat muscle
octandra ssp. pallida is not one of the ten species sprains. Virola elongata and V. theiodora have a
with highest UV in this category, its bark is mixed reddish sap used to soothe toothache and to clean
with clay to make ovens. wounds. It is also is taken orally for diarrhea and
vomiting. V. theiodora sap also kills lice. The
FOOD Yanomami use the bark of this species to make
Arecaceae, with 65 species (35% of the useful hallucinogenic snuff (Prance 1972). From the bark
species), is the most important family in the food of Bahunia guianensis, they make a beverage that is
category. Of the ten species with the highest UVs anti-inflammatory and also treats diarrhea.
in this category, the village caboclos intensely use
the four palms, Oenocarpus bacaba, Attalea maripa, TRADE
Astrocaryum aculeatum, and Euterpe precatória. Of the 21 species in this category (11% of the
The fruits of O. bacaba and E. precatória are used useful species), Bertholletia excelsa has the highest
to make juice (the villagers call it wine) and UV. It is one of the most important species for
cooking oil, the fruits of A. aculeatum are cooked providing community income during the rainy
and eaten, and the fruits of A. maripa are eaten in season. Heteropsis species are essential to the
natura. All four species provide palm hearts (the economy for the same reason, but they were not
apical meristem). Furthermore, the stem of O. sampled in this study. The remaining nine species
bacaba and the seeds of A. maripa harbor a larva with high UVs in this category have low
which is used for food and to treat asthma. Other commercial value because the products are not
important species are Theobroma sylvestris and T. sold outside the community. Dacryodes sclerophylla
speciosa (cacao); the fruit has edible pulp and the and Dacryodes cf. hopkinsii are sold for their resin
seeds are use to make chocolate. The pulp of T. used to waterproof canoes and in the “defumação”
subincanum is also use for nourishment. Couma process (this term will be explained later). The
guianensis has an edible fruit, and the latex is mixed latex of Couma guianensis was a prized commodity
with coffee to drink. According to the informants, during the rubber boom, but it has no value
the latex must be used in small doses because it is a today. Pouteria glomerata also produced rubber.
strong astringent and causes constipation. Borojoa Two species of Moraceae, Maquira sclerophylla and
claviflora fruits are used to make juice. Brazil nuts Helocostylis tomentosa, are sold to tourists as phallic
(Bertholletia excelsa) are used in natura; when symbols because of the shape of the branches.
crushed and pressed, they produce “milk” which is Tourists are rare in this region, however. The seeds
mixed with cassava flour to make a cake. of the two Ormosia species are sold for craftwork.
The young leaves of Astrocaryum aculeatum are
MEDICINE used to make hats and fans, and the seeds are
Of the 82 species recorded as having medicinal made into earrings and rings, but these products
use (44% of the useful species), Clathrotropis are rarely marketed.
11. 70 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL
CRAFTS (1987), Milliken et al. (1992), and those of the
Of the 14 species included here (8% of the present study (also excluding fuel and others
useful species), Astrocaryum aculeatum has the categories for a more accurate comparison) are
highest UV. New leaves are used to make hats and discussed below (Table 5).
fans, and the seeds are made into earrings. The The highest percentage of useful plants was found
bark of Licania hirsuta, Licania cf. prismatocarpa, in the present study, twice as high in the construction
Licania heteromorpha ssp. heteromorpha, and Inga and technology categories. It is important to note
alba are used to dye species of Ischnosiphon and that Prance et al. (1987) and Milliken et al. (1992)
Philodendron, which are then used for weaving group forest uses differently than our study does.
mats and baskets. Lath is extracted from the stems Still, the Caicubi caboclos use the forest more
of the three species of Lecythidaceae, Eschweilera intensely in the construction and technology
pedicellata, E. coriacea, and Gustavia augusta, and categories. The use percentage in the category
used to finish off the tops of these baskets. Attalea medicine is also higher when compared to other
maripa seeds are used to make rings and earrings. studies. Two explanations for this are possible: (1)
the caboclos may have misidentified the plants, thus
increasing the use value of some species, but this
FUEL
can happen in any study using this methodology;
This is the largest category, with 168 species (91% (2) this study’s informants come from various
of the useful species), most of them used for firewood regions in the Amazon, bringing plant knowledge
and charcoal. Four species of the family Burseraceae from different places (upper, middle, lower Rio
had the highest UVs (Dacryodes sclerophylla, Protium Negro, Solimões, Roraima). In contrast, indigenous
hebetatum, Protium opacum subsp. opacum, and communities are usually from a single locality where
Trattinickia glaziovii); the resin of these species is an they have been living much longer. Therefore, these
excellent fuel and the wood is also good for people are probably more familiar with the area and
firewood and making charcoal. provide more accurate plant identification. So it
seems likely that the Caicubi caboclos are generalists
OTHERS in their use of forest resources, including different
This category, with some 20 species (11% of sources of folklore, while the indigenous communi-
the useful species), includes a number of uses that ties are specialists in using these resources. However,
could not be included in the previous categories. we emphasize again that according to Phillips et al.
All ten species with the highest UV for this (1994), simply summing up the number of useful
category belong to the Burseraceae and are used species in a area is only a very crude guide to the
in a ritual called “defumação,” in which a child cultural importance of forests and the results must
sick with asthma or infantile paralysis is treated. be interpreted with care.
The ritual is conducted by a person who knows When comparing a traditional nonindigenous
the proper prayers, usually passed down from community of mestizos in Tambopata, Madre de
father to son. The resin (Protium spp.) is lit at the Dios, Peru, in two plots of terra firme forest, the
moment of prayer. It is also lit inside houses to useful species totaled 89.3 and 85.7% of the species
expel bad spirits. The leaves of Simarouba amara found, and the highest UVs were in the construc-
are also used in the “defumação” ritual, and the tion, food, and crafts categories (Phillips et al.
leaves of Lindackeria cf paludosa are used in 1994). In another study of Afro-Americans on the
witchcraft. Pacific coast of Colombia (Galeano 2000), 62.8%
useful species (for dbh≥5 cm) were found, and the
Comparison with Other Studies most important categories in UVs were construc-
Prance et al. (1987) compare plant use in 1-ha tion, technology, and fuel. The UVs found by
plots among four indigenous communities in Galeano (2000) are similar to those of the present
Amazon terra firme forests including trees with study (Table 6).
dbh≥10 cm. Data analysis excluded the fuel and The results of these studies show the great
game categories because most species were in- amount of knowledge retained by these commu-
cluded in these categories. Milliken et al. (1992) nities. It should be noted that Neotropical forests
used the same methodology with the Waimiri- are actually a huge forest mosaic that offer a great
Atroari Indians. The results of Prance et al. diversity of resources to these communities. Thus
12. 2008] SOLER ET AL.: CABOCLOS’ FOREST USE IN BRAZIL 71
Table 5. DIFFERENT VALUES FOR USEFUL PLANTS WITH DBH≥10 CM FOUND IN PLOTS OF 1HA. OF TERRA FIRME
FORESTS IN DIFFERENT TRADITIONAL COMMUNITIES IN THE AMAZONS, WITHOUT ADDING THE SPECIES THAT ARE USE
FOR GAME AND FUEL (WA, WAIMIRI ATROARI; THE CATEGORIES OF TECHNOLOGY AND OTHERS ARE FUSED FOR
PURPOSES OF COMPARISON).
Community Useful spp. Food Construction Technology Medicine Trade
a
Ka’apor 76.3% 34.3% 20.2% 19.2% 21.2% 2%
Tembéa 61.3% 21.8% 30.3% 21% 10.9% 5%
Chácaboa 78.7% 40.4% 17% 18.1% 35.1% 1%
Panarea 48.6% 34.3% 2.9% 43.0% 7.1% 4%
WAb 79% 27% 32% 31%a 15% 0%
Caicubi 95% 35% 75% 83% 44% 11%
a
Data incorporated from Balée and Boom, published in Prance et al. (1987).
b
Data published in Milliken et al. 1992.
the plant uses cited by the people of these regions cates should be used in ethnobotanical studies so
involve two attributes: knowledge of the plants that accuracy can be assessed within the commu-
and the resources available in each forest. nity and in comparisons with other studies.
The results of this study show that the Caicubi The results of this study are based on the
caboclos are very knowledgeable about the forest, knowledge that the informants have of the forest.
confirming the view of Prance (1995), who states This does not mean that the species and uses
that traditional nonindigenous communities under- cited here are part of daily community life. More
stand the forests to a great degree, and that it is very detailed studies are needed to understand what
important to continue studying these communities. species are used in daily life.
Conclusions Acknowlegments
The Arecaceae has the highest UV for the
We thank the Instituto Caiuá for financial
Caicubi caboclos. This family was also cited as being
support of field work, especially Walo Leuzinger;
very important in other ethnobotanical studies in
the community of Caicubi village for giving us
the Amazon. The Arecaceae, Lecythidaceae, and
shelter, especially Ernane Fontes Barbosa for his
Sapotaceae were prominent in several categories,
help and dedication in the field; Pedrinho Jazinto
showing the importance of these families for the
Ogasti (Wilson), José dos Santos (Passarinho),
Caicubi community and also for conservation of
Juzelino Ferreira da Silva, Duacir de Melos das
the Amazon rain forest.
Cahagas (Gavião), Elio Brasão (Gary), Arlindo
Although there are species that are better Mendes da Costa, Elizabeth Araújo da Costa,
known and more sought after by the community, Plinia de Melo, Alberto Cerrão dos Santos
there are also exclusive-use species that are known
to a small number of people.
Use quantification by the Use–Value method is Table 6. COMPARISON OF THE SPECIES UV INDICATED
complementary to totaling uses. Use values show BY THE CABOCLOS OF THE VILLAGE OF CAICUBI AND THE
the species most sought after by the community, AFRO-AMERICANS OF THE PACIFIC COAST, COLOMBIA
while the totaling of uses gives a broader spectrum (GALEANO 2000).
of species use. Both of these methods should be
used in establishing conservation priorities. Caboclos Afro-Colombians
Ongoing studies of these communities are Use category of Caicubí of Chocó
essential for a better understanding of their Construction 25% 32%
culture and the way they use forest resources. A Technology 28% 30%
greater number of use categories would allow a Fuel 28% 21%
more accurate quantitative analysis. However, it is Food 9% 9%
Medicine 9% 5%
important to standardize use categories so that
Trade 1% 4%
more detailed comparisons can be made. Repli-
13. 72 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL
(Mutum), and Esteban Brás Monteiro. Thanks to Waimiri Atroari Indians of Brazil. Royal
C.A. Cid Ferreira for support at the INPA Botanical Gardens, Kew, U.K.
herbarium and P. Assunção for helping to Parker, E. P. 1989. A Neglected Human Resource
identify specimens at the INPA herbarium; in Amazonia: The Amazon Caboclo. Advances
specialists A. Vicentini, D. Daly, J. E. Ribeiro, in Economic Botany 7:249–259.
and M. Hopkins for identifying species belonging Paz y Miño, G., H. Baslev, and V. Renato. 1995.
to their families; D. Araujo for reviewing an early Useful Lianas of the Siona-Secoya Indians from
version of this paper; and the staff of the Jardim Amazonian Ecuador. Economic Botany 49(3)
Botânico do Rio de Janeiro for being so helpful. 269–275.
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![2008] SOLER ET AL.: CABOCLOS’ FOREST USE IN BRAZIL 61
eastern Brazil (Parker 1989). In spite of the differ- therefore done by middlemen. The village has a
ences between natives and caboclos, widespread primary school and a public health post with a
similarities indicate commonalities of occupation precarious service record and an overall lack of
and resource use (German 2001). Nevertheless, medicine. The Christian faith predominates; there
caboclos are not as colorful as indigenous people, is a Catholic church and an evangelical church.
and thus may hold less interest for researchers, The people live mainly from fishing, hunting,
which may explain why caboclo knowledge, use, subsistence agriculture (cassava), and harvesting
and management of natural resources in the forest products. The main source of income during
Amazon has been poorly studied (Parker 1989). the rainy season comes from the sale of Brazil nuts
The aims of this study were to understand and (Bertholletia excelsa) and a liana (Heteropsis spp).
quantify plant use of individuals with dbh (diam- During the dry season, ornamental fish make up
eter breast high) ≥ 10 cm in 1 ha of terra firme the bulk of trade. Craftwork such as baskets and
forest by the caboclos of Caicubi village, Caracarai mats made mostly of Ischnosiphon sp. and Philo-
Municipality, in the state of Roraima, Brazil. dendron sp. are sold occasionally.
The first inhabitants of Caicubí village arrived
in the 1940s to extract Brazil nuts. More people
Study Area gradually arrived from other regions of the
Caicubi village is located on Caicubi Creek, a Amazon, mainly from the upper and middle
tributary of the Jufari River, at the junction of the Negro and lower Solimões rivers and other areas
rivers Negro and Branco (01°01′43″S; 62°05′21″W; in Roraima. The main language is Portuguese,
Fig. 1), Caracarai Municipality, in the state of but the oldest inhabitants who came from the
Roraima. There are 400 habitants and 72 families upper Negro River also speak the “Língua Geral,”
in the village. The nearest towns are Barcelos (12 h which is common in that part of the Amazon
by boat), Manaus (36 h by boat), and Caracaraí (Ricardo et al. 2005).
(on the Branco River, 70 h by boat), which makes Study area characteristics, geomorphology, and
trade between village and town difficult. Trading is climate, as well as floristic and structural analyses
Fig. 1. Location of the village of Caicubi, Caracaraí municipality, Roraima, Brazil.](data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP///yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7)