1. MINISTRY OF
THE ENVIRONMENT
SPATIAL PLANNING
DEPARTMENT
As follow-up to the European Spatial
Development Perspective (ESDP), the
Danish Presidency is focusing on the
implications of globalisation and the
role of cities in regional development.
In three main sections, this report deals
in detail with the problems relating to the
role of cities in regional development. A
number of Scandinavian researchers have
contributed to the report.
The report is a contribution by the
Danish Ministry of the Environment,
Spatial Planning Department to the
international conference European Cities
in a Global Era - Urban Identities and
Regional Development. It is intended as a
supplement to the conference, introducing key aspects of the issues discussed
and providing background reading.
URBAN IDENTITIES AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT
The first section includes the
Copenhagen Charter 2002 - the Danish
Presidency’s suggested agenda for a discussion on future urban and regional development - as well as a number of operational recommendations. The second
section deals in general terms with globalisation’s impact on Europe’s cities and
regions. Finally, the last section deals with
different aspects concerning the development of an urban identity concept.
EUROPEAN CITIES IN A GLOBAL ERA
EUROPEAN
CITIES
IN
A
GLOBAL
ERA
EUROPEAN CITIES IN A GLOBAL ERA
URBAN IDENTITIES AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT

2. PAGES 058-059 / URBAN IDENTITY / PRESERVATION AND/OR AUTHENTICITY
PRESERVATION
AND/OR
AUTHENTICITY
Karl Otto Ellefsen
The preservation of historic urban areas
is today the general strategy for maintaining and strengthening identity and
local character in the majority of
European towns and cities. However,
current preservation strategies are not
unproblematic. There is often a conflict
between, on the one hand, preservation
and, on the other, a town or city’s need
for transformation and space for the
expression of the identity of our age. In
such a situation, it is important to be
aware that there are many different
methods of preservation. Those responsible for safeguarding make a number
of choices - either consciously or
unconsciously. Reality operates with
very different perceptions of the meaning of authenticity and identity. The
author shows the spectrum of European
preservation practices and indicates the
attitudes the different strategies express.
Finally, he has some critical comments
and requests for those who must make
the choices in future preservation.
The need to renew the physical surroundings and abandon old ideas has been a
dominant concept inherent in industrial
society’s urban development and has been a
credo for modern urban planning. The
concept of preservation grew as part of
what we can call the general criticism of
modernism in architecture and urban studies, which developed through the 1950s,
1960s and 1970s. This criticism was primarily based on dissatisfaction with the
results of modern urban development, the
destruction of old cultural environments
and the building of new environments that
met all functional requirements but that
did not meet the social and cultural patterns requiring space in European towns or
cities. The criticism led to changes in the
values that guided urban planning.
Attempts have been made to replace universal solutions, or environments that in
principle could be placed anywhere, with
regional or local solutions. Modern building technology and high-technology materials no longer only yielded benefits. The

3. VENICE, ONE OF EUROPE’S MOST IMPORTANT
scientific, rational argument for new sur-
torical monuments, buildings and histori-
MUSEUMS AND AN ENTERTAINING THEME
roundings no longer had the same power in
cal urban cores.
PARK. A STRONG AND COMPLETE HISTORICAL
public debates. It was safer to choose the
MONUMENT, BUT APART FROM THE MUSEUM
empirically proven good and traditional
There have subsequently been significant
solutions. The historical town or city as a
changes in European preservation author-
FROM THE MUCH LESS CHARMING MESTRE
monument gained an increased cultural
ities’ ambitions, values, and preservation
ON THE MAINLAND.
value, because as an authentic monument it
strategies (see for example the two
bears the town or city’s collective identity.
UNESCO reports from 1995). Preservation
VISITORS (TOURISTS), A DYING CITY WHERE
MUSEUM GUARDS COMMUTE EVERYDAY
of surroundings has become a much larger
issue and is seen as being a far more com-
From the Venice Charter to
“clusters of authenticity”
plex problem.
The Venice Charter (1964) was the first
Firstly, preservation is not only limited to a
international political superstructure for a
unique historical object, but also includes
new preservation policy. The Charter’s pri-
the historical character of the surroundings.
mary goal was to preserve the cultural her-
We are not as concerned with the docu-
itage that was partly destroyed by the war.
mentation of the typical as with the docu-
Architecture and urban planning was also
mentation of the unique. The time perspec-
being greatly influenced by modernism’s
tive has been extended from the genuinely
values, and reconstruction was therefore
historical to include the recent past, and in
also seen as being a threat almost as great
some cases the surroundings produced
as war itself. The specialists behind the
today. Age in itself is no longer a necessary
charter focused on formulating operational
criteria for preservation. Ambitions have, in
international guidelines and they limited
other words, expanded from focusing on
their area of interest to the undisputed his-
“dead” ancient monuments to include living

4. PAGES 060-061 / URBAN IDENTITY / PRESERVATION AND/OR AUTHENTICITY
ANALYSIS OF SEVILLE’S STRUCTURE AND DIVISION INTO
environments that are a product of histori-
ing in a Norwegian village than in a central
AREAS.
cal processes - cultural environments that
European pre-Roman town or city.
THE PLAN IS INSPIRED BY ALDO ROSSI’S
INTERPRETATION OF THE URBAN ENVIRON-
are seen as being threatened by physical,
social and cultural transformation.
The specialists behind the Venice Charter
were architects and art historians. The cur-
MENT AND DIVIDES THE CITY INTO AREAS
BASED ON STRUCTURE AND TYPOLOGY. THE
Secondly, monuments are seen in the con-
rent approach to preservation is based to an
HISTORICAL CORE IS DELIMITED IN THE MID-
text of which they are part, a place, a town
equal extent on ethnology, social anthropol-
DLE. WITHIN THIS AREA, ELEGANT HISTORICAL
or city, a cultural landscape and perhaps
ogy and linguistics. The criteria for evaluat-
AND TYPOLOGICAL SURVEYS WERE CARRIED
also a region or a territory. The concept of
ing what is worth preserving in a cultural
place and how local character is described is
environment in the Nordic countries has,
of particular interest.
however, expanded from including histori-
OUT AS NEW INTERVENTIONS WERE DISCUSSED IN CONNECTION WITH PLANS FOR
THE WORLD EXPO IN 1990.
cal value, age, different types of craftsmanA further trait in the current approach to
ship and aesthetic qualities, to include a set
building preservation is that universal
of various socio-cultural criteria such as rep-
norms have been shown to be difficult to
resentivity, identity, symbolic and environ-
use. The discussion around an object’s or
mental values.
environment’s preservation value and the
choice of preservation strategy is in practice
A consequence of this is that the concept of
relative to culture. Authenticity in western
authenticity, which is closely linked to iden-
cultures has mainly been associated with the
tity, and which has always been a central
preservation of physical materials. However,
concept in the discussion around preserva-
in Japanese and Chinese cultures, authenti-
tion, has received a new content. From being
city has equally been linked to stability of
unambiguous, the concept of authenticity
form or (in other words) that the building
has expanded to become a relative concept
is documented and that craftsmen’s tradi-
comprised of many different dimensions.
tions are preserved so that it is always possi-
“Clusters of aspects of authenticity” is a for-
ble to build it again. The history of the
mulation that was used at UNESCO’s Nara
1800s has a much greater value in the USA
conference in 1995, when the principles in
than in Europe and the concept of “histori-
the Venice Charter were reformulated.
cal traces” has a completely different mean-
Authenticity can be linked to original mate-

5. VITORCHIANO - THE PLACE GROWS OUT OF
rials, similarity of form, historical continuity
strategies. The theories of the architects
THE VOLCANIC ROCKS ALONG THE GORGE
of use, unchanged traditions of craftsman-
Aldo Rossi and Christian Norberg-Schultz
FORMED BY THE TIBER, AS SHOWN IN A PIC-
ship, and to continuity of the landscape or
can illustrate the thinking behind the new
TURE TAKEN BY CHRISTIAN NORBERG-SCHULZ.
construction in which the object is placed.
approach to urban architecture. They have
THE RANGE BETWEEN LOCAL CHARACTERISTICS (PLACE), AND HOW THE PROPERTIES OF
different views of how identity is linked to
PLACE CAN AFFECT OTHERWISE UNIVERSAL
Our approach to preservation today means
the city, and their perceptions are also part
SOLUTIONS, IS A CENTRAL PROBLEM IN THE
that we often find ourselves in a situation
of the current debate. In other words, by
DISCUSSION OF LOCAL IDENTITY. THE LATIN
where very many objects in a historical
going back to Rossi and Norberg-Schultz
NOUN LOCUS PRIMARILY MEANS PLACE OR
building environment and very many urban
we can improve our understanding of the
LOCALITY, BUT CAN ALSO REFER TO A SPECIAL
environments are eligible for preservation.
situation today.
POINT, SITUATION, TERRAIN OR REGION.
When the field is expanded to include “living”, expanding, and economically flourish-
Rossi’s central theoretical work L’architettura
ing urban areas, conflicts arise between
della città (Rossi 1966) was inspired by con-
preservation and many other social, cultural
temporary structuralism and can also be seen
and political urban development goals.
as being a part of an Italian academic tradi-
Preservation is an interest that, with an
tion in understanding the urban environ-
authority that is disputable, competes with
ment. Italian towns and cities were only
other interests. This conflict is particularly
bombed lightly during the war and suffered
obvious in developing countries where the
little damage. However, economic develop-
need for economic growth and modernisa-
ment, particularly in northern Italy, has
tion is unquestionable.
placed great pressure on historical town and
city structures. A town or city is in Rossi’s
theory a “manufakt”, a historically produced
Architecture, historical identity
and place
result. A town or city as it exists today is an
As a part of the criticism of modernism
the way physical surroundings have devel-
from the 1960s onwards, theories were
oped as a tool to satisfy these needs. The
developed which focused on local character,
town is therefore a structure where the throw-
and which formed the background for
offs of all eras are incorporated and reused. In
many later architectural and urban planning
other words, a town or city’s architecture
expression of need, its change over time and

6. PAGES 062-063 / URBAN IDENTITY / PRESERVATION AND/OR AUTHENTICITY
“URBAN LIVING ROOM”, COMPETITION ENTRY FOR THE
marks its history. It bears and expresses col-
gave it its distinctiveness. Locus was also
VESTBANEN AREA IN OSLO, ARCHITECTS: OFFICE FOR
lective memory - the town or city’s identity.
primarily understood within a religious
METROPOLITAN ARCHITECTURE, 1ST PRICE.
context, as a holy place and this can illus-
NARRATIVE PROTECTION. THE OLD STATION
Rossi, from an analytical viewpoint, sees
trate the meaning Norberg-Schultz gave
BUILDING IS LEFT AS AN ANECDOTE THAT
the town or city, on the one hand, as an
place in his architecture theory.
TELLS ABOUT THE STATION AS IT ONCE WAS
expression of general principles. The town
AND IS AN EXAMPLE OF GOOD INSTITUTION-
or city builds on a language (basic struc-
Norberg-Schultz was inspired by the
AL ARCHITECTURE FROM THE END OF THE
ture) with a given number of elements or
philosopher Martin Heidegger, and his the-
1800S. IN THE PROJECT, THE NEW URBAN
basic units (types); building types, struc-
oretical approach was phenomenology. He
tural and topologic principles. This lan-
wanted to discuss the surroundings as they
guage forms a structural unity where the
really are, as objects and entire places, not
units mutually define each other. As for
divided up into categories. His concepts are
other languages, the town contains its own
not precise in the conventional scientific
grammatical rules for its own change. The
sense, but are characteristic such as use, fea-
town’s structure is also the basis for self-
ture, atmosphere, and character. Every place
regulation, but also a potential object for
must possess its own aesthetic quality. The
transformation in the sense that new needs
problem with new development is that it
can demand new structural principles.
often does not manage to retain these place
AREA IS NOT DETERMINED BY THE STRUCTURE AND FORM OF THE BUILDING.
characteristics. A “loss of place” therefore
However, on the other hand, the town or city
occurs which is also a loss of identity. The
can be seen as being something singular and
task of architects and urban planners should
special, as a locus solus - a distinctive place. It
therefore be to give people reference points
can also be seen as an artefact. For example, a
by creating meaningful places or in other
building or a specific part of an urban envi-
words through making genius loci visible.
ronment is an expression of the general principles of architectural order but also has
If we compare Rossi’s and Norberg-Schultz’s
unique aesthetic properties that point back to
theories, three points are particularly inter-
the unique historical events at this place.
esting. Firstly, Norberg-Schultz searches for
a comprehensive description and flexible
Christian Norberg-Schultz developed the
categorisation of the urban elements that
concept of place and gave a different inter-
Rossi’s urban theory inspired. In addition,
pretation of its content (Norberg-Schulz
Norberg-Schultz emphasises the natural
1979). The antique place was governed by
landscape and the cultural landscape’s mean-
the genius loci, the place’s divine spirit that
ing for a place’s spatial structure and charac-

7. RESTORATION OF THE RIVERBANK AND JOZE
ter. Thirdly, the approach to discussing the
principles are clearly shown? The diversity
ˇ
PLECNIK’S PROJECTS IN LJUBLJANA, SLOVENIA
relationship between town or city/place,
in approach is shown in the field’s abundant
ARE A RARE AND VERY SUCCESSFUL EXAMPLE
physical surroundings and identity are very
concepts expressed through small but signif-
OF HOW A RESTORATION PROJECT OF AN
different. Place, for Rossi, is a continually
icant differences of approach, conservation,
changing “manufakt” that documents place
restitution, regeneration, rehabilitation,
history and therefore bears place identity.
reconstruction, renovation and restoration.
For Norberg-Schultz, a place’s meaning or
There are very different views on how and
identity is a fixed quantity that can be inter-
to what extent guidelines should be given
preted through taking care of the existing
for new development in preservation areas.
architecture and through new architecture.
Preservation and transformation should be
ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURALLY VALUABLE INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECT CAN
STRENGTHEN A CITY’S IDENTITY.
seen in the context that new building development should submit or mimic old build-
Preservation strategies
ings through using guidance on form. But
European towns and cities demonstrate a
it is also possible to claim that towns and
wide spectrum both in terms of objects
cities are constantly changing and that new
selected for preservation investment, and
architecture should primarily express the
how preservation is carried out and set in
needs of the day by adding an authentic
the context of other urban development. In
expression of this onto the old form.
practice, all preservation involves intervention in reality and affects the surroundings,
European towns and cities demonstrate the
either physically, or through changing their
breadth in the discussion around which his-
meaning. Throughout European history
torical elements should be highlighted as
there have been detailed discussions not
either history-bearing or identity-creating.
only of what should be preserved but also
Glasgow’s celebration of its industrial histo-
how preserved objects should be maintained
ry and the ritualisation of the Ruhr area’s
and where relevant treated. Should an area
industrial monuments in Emscher Park,
or an object be returned to an assumed
which Jens Kvorning wrote about in his
original form based on fragments of know-
article (pp. 50-57), attempts to link the
ledge? Or does a town or city ruin lose its
town or city’s identity with recent history.
authenticity, its beauty, charm and patina so
Other towns, such as Oslo, prioritise pre-
that it becomes in practice a false copy? Or
serving their landscape characteristics.
can this be avoided by the preservation
process clearly showing the divide between
Most towns use very hybrid preservation
authentic material and the new so that the
strategies that vary from area to area.

8. PAGES 064-065 / URBAN IDENTITY / PRESERVATION AND/OR AUTHENTICITY
BERLIN: A MAP THAT SHOWS (IN RED) NEW BUILDINGS
Discussion of these complex strategies can
wise, is that structural preservation allows
THAT WILL BE BUILT IN THE PERIOD 2000-2010 AND AN
however be reverted to the purer approach-
greater freedom for new projects to rede-
es, with clear theoretical justifications.
fine historical traces, transfer new princi-
EXAMPLE OF A RECONSTRUCTION STRATEGY.
ples of architectural order onto the histor-
THE GOAL IN BERLIN IS NO LONGER TO REINVENT OR CONVERT IT TO A MODERN CITY,
• On one side there are the museum
ical traces, and develop typologies.
BUT TO CARRY OUT A SCENOGRAPHIC RECON-
preservation strategies where total and
STRUCTION WHERE THE CITY IS REBUILT
authentic preservation of urban areas has
• Narrative protection emphasises the his-
USING PRINCIPLES TAKEN FROM THE HISTORI-
precedence over all other considerations.
torical-narrative (history-telling) elements
CAL ARCHITECTURE. THIS IS ACHIEVED BY
In this strategy, all new building is unde-
of a town or city. Preservation work is
sirable. Venice is the best example of this
not focused on the whole, but on the
type of strategy.
often incomplete fragments. These, com-
PRESERVING AND RECONSTRUCTING HISTORICAL BUILDINGS AND BY BUILDING NEW
BUILDINGS IN ACCORDANCE WITH MODELS
bined with new urban development, rep-
OF THE OLD. USING THIS POLICY, BERLIN
WANTS TO STRENGTHEN ITS HISTORICAL
• Reconstruction strategies involve the
resent a resource that projects can use
IDENTITY AS GERMANY’S CAPITAL. THE GOAL
recreation of something that has existed
and make clearer. Narrative protection
APPLIES TO MUCH MORE THAN THE DESIRE
previously. The Polish restitution of his-
therefore makes it possible to combine
TO RECREATE MONUMENTS AND MAKE HIS-
torical monuments and urban centres is
the need for change, the need for new
a clear example of a reconstruction strat-
cultural expression and the documenta-
egy (Karsten 1987).
tion of historical continuity. The strategy
TORICAL STRUCTURES VISIBLE. THE SEMANTIC
ASPECT OF MORPHOLOGY IS GIVEN MEANING
IN ITSELF. THE TOWN IS SEEN AS A TEXT THAT
is politically and professionally more
THE NEW PROJECT WILL COMPLETE.
FIGURATIVE ELEMENTS THAT VISUALLY COM-
• Structural preservation involves differen-
MUNICATE ARE IMPORTANT FOR THE “DISCUS-
tiating between stable historical structures
SION” TO WORK.
pragmatic than consistent reconstruction
and more transitory expressions of form.
Preservation work focuses on the princi-
or new structural entity concepts.
• General preservation of urban environ-
ples that have controlled the town or city’s
ments can be seen as being a fifth strat-
architecture and has resulted in structures
egy, even though in practice it will
with a high degree of permanence. In a
include elements of the four previously
built-up area with a city block structure,
mentioned strategies. The difference
structural preservation will involve pre-
with this strategy is that it builds on a
serving the block division and possibly
wide approach to what has value in the
also the buildings’ typology. However,
surroundings and links the identity con-
maintaining the building pattern and the
cept of built-up areas, physical proper-
style may be of lesser importance. A sig-
ties, and spaciousness to the concept of
nificant difference between this and
quality. Attitudes to what should be pre-
reconstruction strategies, critical or other-
served in Copenhagen’s city centre illus-

9. RESTITUTION OF RENAISSANCE HOUSES FROM THE SQUARE
trate this strategy. The Danish SAVE sys-
Authentic comes from the Greek word
IN POZNAN.
tem’s analysis methods for recording
authentes for instigator. The concept means
“urban architectural values” focuses on
that an object is completely genuine and
just these qualities. This is not primarily
reliable. Authentic is a demanding concept
THE HISTORICAL TOWN OR CITY HAD ITS
about a complex antiquarian discussion,
to use because everything is an authentic
FIRST DRAMATIC BREAKTHROUGH IN EASTERN
nor a thorough survey of the city’s histo-
expression of what it is. The distinction
EUROPE AND THAT THIS BEGAN IN THE PERI-
ry, but a systematic observation of that
between the genuine and the false is diffi-
OD FOLLOWING THE SECOND WORLD WAR. IN
which is considered to be of value in the
cult to draw and changes over time. That
POLAND, THE DESTRUCTION OF POLISH CUL-
city’s architecture as it appears today.
which was considered in its time to be a
IT MAY SEEM LIKE AN ANACHRONISM THAT
THE DESIRE TO TAKE CARE OF AND REBUILD
TURE WAS A PART OF THE NAZI OCCUPATION
cultural expression of little value can be
PROGRAMME. TO REMEDY THIS PROGRAMME
OF DESTRUCTION, IT WAS DECIDED IMMEDI-
seen later to have value as a cultural monu-
Authenticity?
ment. An object’s meaning is dependent on
TORICAL OBJECTS AND URBAN AREAS WHICH
All preservation work is simpler than it was
culture and changes with it.
HAD BORNE POLISH HISTORY WOULD BE
some decades ago, because cultural monu-
REBUILT.
ment protection has acquired political force
Even so, the concept of authenticity is
throughout the whole of Europe. However,
important in the discussion of preservation
at the same time, cultural monument pro-
strategies. Urban architecture is no con-
tection has become more difficult because
stant. Architecture is always a tool for
the whole authenticity problem with the
changing societal needs, and these cannot
historical narrative and meaning-bearing
always be met within the historical urban
International Charter for the Conservation and Resto-
aspects of preservation-worthy objects and
structure. The natural consequence of this is
ration of Monuments and Sites, ICOMOS. Venice 1964.
their environments has become more diffi-
that the historical town or city makes space
Karsten, I.A.: Minnesmerket - en Del av Vår Identitet.
cult to relate to. Monuments rise above the
for the urban functions that do not come
Historiske Byer i Polen og Tsjekkoslovakia. Academic
discussion. They raise ideological problems
into conflict with it. While the need for
dissertation at Stockholm University, Department of Art
in restoration, but have a meaning-bearing
physical transformation, which is the
History 1987.
ATELY AFTER THE WAR THAT DESTROYED HIS-
REFERENCES
Gjenoppbygging, Revaluering og Regenerasjon av
weight that can only be damaged by
authentic need for today’s urban society, is
Conférence de Nara sur l’Authenticité. Japan 1995.
destruction. Problems arise when the sur-
met by other parts of the urban structure.
Proceedings, UNESCO, 1995.
roundings we use daily as part of the living
The problem in the historical core can then
Larsen, K.E. (ed.): Nara Conference on Authenticity -
Norberg-Schultz, C.: Genius Loci - paesaggio, ambiente,
city (with the power of society’s economic,
be that it exists as a theme park for histori-
Operational Guidelines for Implementation of the
productive, social and cultural activity)
cal monuments that primarily serve as
World Heritage Convention. Intergovernmental
become monuments worthy of preservation.
wings for tourism and as an entertainment
Heritage, UNESCO 1995.
The fear of losing history can empty such
centre in the developed urban region. The
Rossi, A.: L’architettura della città. Padova: Marsilio
historical monuments of meaning and make
quality requirement for new architecture is
1966.
them into aesthetic figures without depth.
then simple - it must be like the old.
architettura. Milano: Electa 1979.
Committee for the World Cultural and Natural