1. Manipulative
Participation
• Participation is simply a pretense
•Participation occurs through
representation on an advisory board,
but these representatives but have no
power
• Women may be included in token
ways, in order to ‘fill a quota’

2. Passive Participation
• People participate by being told what
has been decided or has already
happened
• The power rests with ‘experts.’ It is
generally assumed that experts know
what women need or want

3. Consultation
• People are consulted or asked
questions; experts define problems and
control information gathering
• Professionals are not obliged to act on
people’s views; they may consult with
‘women’s representatives’

4. Participation for Material
Assets
• People participate by contributing
resources (such as knowledge or labor)
in return for cash or other material
benefits
• People have no stake when the project
ends so that sustainability is poor

5. Functional Participation
• Participation is seen as a means to achieve
project goals
• People may form groups to meet
predetermined objectives
• Project dynamics may be interactive and
there may be shared decision-making, but
major decisions tend to be made by the
external agency

6. Interactive Participation
• People participate in joint analysis,
development of an action plan, and
formation/strengthening of local institutions
• Participation is a right and not just a means
• Participation may be conducive to the
formation of groups and networks that
continue to operate after your project is over
• More …

7. • Multiple perspectives are sought and learning
incorporated into process
• Groups exercise control over local decisions
and access to resources so that they have a
stake in maintaining practices
• While sustainability will be higher, conflicts
may emerge

8. Self-mobilization
• People participate by taking initiatives
independent of external agents
• They form networks through external
resources but retain control over how
resources are used
• This mobilization may or may not challenge
existing distributions of power
• The ideal outcome is empowerment of
marginalized groups such as women

9. Women’s participation will be promoted
when women have been included in:
• defining the problem being addressed;
• preparing the project proposal;
• the membership of the project team;
• all levels of decision-making.

10. Can women participate?
Barriers:
• Women’s lack of authority in households,
organizations and communities
• The social value of women’s lost labor
• Women’s lack of mobility
• Women’s level of literacy and education
• Women’s lack of confidence or self-esteem

11. Will women participate?
Barriers
• Perception of benefits from participation
• Attitudes of project workers towards women
• Role models of participation
• Scheduling of activities
• Language and communication barriers