AS6230: Introduction to
Research 8

Qualitative methods and
analysis

Qualitative Research: What is it?
 Understanding the world we live in by answering questions
like:
 How opinions and attitudes are formed?
 How people are affected by the events that go on around them?
 How and why cultures have developed in the way they have?
 What are the differences between groups?

The Reseacher’s Role
“Being There”, “Getting Nosy” and “Looking Over Others’
Shoulders” (Wolcott, 1995)

The Four Main Types
 Phenomenology: describing events, situations,
experiences or concepts.
 Ethnography: studying peoples and cultures
 Grounded theory : developing new theory
 Case study: studying a specific case or set of cases

The Researcher's Role
Being a learner
‘Sucking in’ the atmosphere of the field
Reflecting on your own experiences

The Researcher's Role
the Emic Verses the Etic
Emic (Insider) verses Etic (Outsider) diliemmas

Sampling in Qualitative (and some Mixed)
Research
 Sampling in qualitative research never seeks to generalize
to an entire population; it wants to tell a story from that
population
 There is recognition of bias as the sample is non-random
and often small
 The sample MUST represent some aspect of the
phenomena being studied in the research question

Sampling in Qualitative Research:
focus
 Maximum variation
 Homogenous sample selection
 Extreme case sampling
 Typical case sampling
 Critical case sampling
 Negative case sampling

Sampling in Qualitative/Mixed Research:
Techniques
 Convenience/opportunistic
 Quota (choosing groups and numbers)
 Purposive/criterion-based
 Snowball
 Comprehensive

Your Turn
Positivist/Post-Positivist
Constructivist
Feminist
Ethnic
Marxist
Culture
Mixed
 Select five sampling techniques
 Describe what questions they
could answer for each paradigm
 Describe what types of cases
you could focus on to answer
your question
 Describe the limitations of each
technique

Fieldnotes

Fieldnotes
 Sit alongside other techniques
 Detailed notes and reflections of the field
 Three types
 Descriptive
 Methodological
 Reflexive
 Occur after/before – rather than during

Descriptive Fieldnotes
 Include observations
 Describes the field –
including maps, setting
descriptions, and individuals

Methodological Fieldnotes
 Reflections on methodological
approaches being used
 Notes on any changes to any approach
being used

Reflexive Fieldnotes
 Journaling of own
learning/experiences/
thoughts throughout the process
 May sit within or alongside
descriptive and methodological
notes
 Technically seen as journaling of
experience

Dilemmas
 What dilemmas and issues to research does the practice of
observation bring?
 How can fieldnotes counter these issues and dilemmas?
 What else can the researcher do to ensure that the story
makes sense intrinsically (on an emic level) and extrinsically
(on an etic level)?

Observation

Why Observe?
 To develop a theory
 To prove/disprove a theory
 Making use of an “opportunity” (Wolcott, 1995)
 Provide a thick description to analyse
 Provide an instrument of triangulation (alongside
interviewing and fieldnotes)

What to observe
 Interactions
 Between people
 Between people and settings
 Between people and yourself
 Behaviours
 Reactions
 Routines
 Interactions
 The Context/Setting
 The overt and the covert

How?
 Traditional
 Eyes, pen, and paper
 Technological
 Cameras/Video/ICT
 Combination
 Trad+Post
 Even the post involves
a level of the traditional

To what degree/level
 Four phases of observation
 Scoping
 Descriptive
 Focused
 Selective
 Each involves a different
focus/depth

Phase One: Scoping
 Familisation with the setting
 Setting mapping
 Apparent rules/structures
 General impressions
 Your own reactions
 Any thoughts/hypotheses
 A reflexive tool
 Jottings and diagrams

Phase Two: Descriptive
 Detailed descriptions of settings, interactions, and
behaviours
 Focuses on questions that can be addressed through
observation
- the inquisitive eye
 Uses delimiters and descriptors for current details and
future reference

Phase Three: Focused Observation
 Descriptive observation focusing on specific descriptive
questions:
 Space
 Objects
 Time
 Behaviours
 Individuals

Descriptive Questions
Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling
Space
Object
Act
Activity
Event
Time
Actor
Goal
Feeling
From Spradley (1980)

Descriptive Questions
Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling
Space
Object
Act
Activity
Event
Time
Actor
Goal
Feeling

Phase Four: Selective Observation
 The focusing down of ‘focus observations’
 Looks at filling in the gaps
 Providing other dimensions to focused observations and the phenomenon
in question
 Focuses on the specifics
 Individual
 Event
 Behaviour
 Context

Observation and Technology
 What are the strengths of involving technology as an
observation tool?
 What ‘new’ dilemmas arise from using technology as an
observation tool?
 Do paper and pen still have a role to play alongside
technology?
 What is this role?

Time to go Observing