2. Objectives
• At the end of this session, you will be able to:
▫ Identify problems that are general to every workplace and those
that are specific to your organization
▫ Determine how to solve problems you face as a Supervisor using a
problem solving model or fishbone analysis
▫ Identify the characteristics of an effective problem solver
▫ Determine the ingredients for good decision making
▫ Effectively make collaborative decisions with your team using the
gradients of agreement tool.
3. Content
1. Introduction to Problem Solving and Decision Making
2. Problem Solving
Types of Problems encountered at the Workplace
Approach to Problem Solving
Characteristics of an Effective Problem Solver
3. Decision Making
Types of Decisions
Ingredients for Good Decision Making
The Decision Making Process
Gradients of Agreement
How to Improve Decision Making
4.
5. Introduction to problem solving & decision
making
• Problem solving…
▫ Is bridging the gap between the way things are and the way
they ought to be
▫ It is focused on the past
Usually analytical
Operational
Done at lower levels
• A problem is
▫ A present unsatisfactory state that needs to be changed to a desired state
as soon as possible
▫ Some deviation from the expected standard which prevent the
achievement of objectives
6. Introduction to problem solving & decision
making
• Decision making…
▫ Is a broader concept
▫ It is the act of making a choice between two or more options
▫ It is focused on the future
Often creative
Directional
Done at senior levels
• Problem solving is therefore
▫ part of decision making
▫ a subset of decision making
7.
8. Types of Problems encountered at the
Workplace
• Problems abound in every workplace due to various
issues such as the need to
▫ collaborate and work with various types of people,
▫ meet targets and deadlines,
▫ work within tight budgets,
▫ gain the endorsement and praise of supervisors
▫ work within the norms and culture of the organization
etc
9. Types of Problems encountered at the
Workplace
• There are specific problems which are common to every workplace
because workplaces are human institutions and human beings are
the same every where.
▫ Communication problems
▫ Attitude problems
▫ Interpersonal challenges between supervisor and subordinate or among
your subordinates
▫ Ethical problems
▫ Poor performance
▫ Discrimination and/or harassment
What are some of
these problems?
10. Types of Problems encountered at the
Workplace
• There are another set of problems that are peculiar to an
organization for various reasons for example as a result
of
▫ Policies that are unique to your workplace
▫ Processes that should be followed for various work related issues
▫ Types of clients the organization provides services to
▫ Other constraints at work ie. Inadequate resources, equipment
etc.
List some of the unique
problems you face as
Supervisors in your
workplace
11. Types of Problems encountered at the
Workplace
• How do you presently resolve such problems?
▫ Do you take any specific steps or you approach the problems
randomly depending on your mood or the person/people causing
the problem? If you do, what are these steps?
▫ Have you observed how your subordinates react/respond to your
approach to solving problems?
▫ What has been your success rate so far?
On a scale of 1 to 10, with 1 being the least and 10 the highest, rate
yourself on how effective you have been at resolving problems.
12. Approach to problem solving
• To effectively solve problems at the workplace, it is
important to keep the following in mind:
▫ Problems are not manageable when they are conceived in large
global terms:
“Everything is going wrong.” “He will never change.” “There is no hope.”
etc. You need to establish and obtain relevant facts.
▫ Problems should not be allowed to linger.
Addressing issues as they occur is a much strategy than waiting for
things to get better and work themselves out.
13. Approach to problem solving
▫ Practice fairness in solving problems
Commend or criticize the team, (where relevant) not the
players, and establish a culture of fairness in the decisions you
make and the actions you take
▫ If there is any punishment, let it fit the crime
Not too excessive, not too lenient
14. Approach to problem solving
• There are countless approaches that have been
developed for problem solving, some very simple and
others complicated. Some of these include:
▫ Trial-and-error method :one solution after another is tried until the
problem is solved or appears to be improving.
▫ Experimentation: a theory is tested to enhance
knowledge, understanding , or prediction.
▫ Affinity map : a tool used to identify problems.
▫ Problem solving models
▫ Fishbone analysis
▫ We would look at two of such approaches.
15. a. The problem solving model
• The problem solving model is a step by step approach to
solving problems developed by various writers and
modified by many more. Some have it in 5, 6, and even 8
steps. The approach is as follows:
▫ 1- Recognize that there is a problem and define it
▫ 2- gather information
▫ 3- analyze the information
What is the specific problem you are
faced with? Write this down in clear
simple language and as objectively
as possible
Ask:
Who – is causing it and who does it
affect
What – are the visible signs of a
problem
When –does/did it occur
Where – does it occur/have an impact
Why – did it occur
How –Should the ideal situation be?
Analysis of past solutions
16. The problem solving model
▫ 4- develop solutions and choose the best
▫ 5- implement the solution
▫ 6- evaluate the solution
•Identify all the features of an ideal
solution, including the conditions it
has to satisfy
•Eliminate solutions which do not
satisfy the
conditions/requirements
•Assess the risks associated with the
'best' solution
•Decide to implement this solution
Take the appropriate action and
monitor its effects
Review the ultimate
success of the action
17. The problem solving model
• The importance of understanding and using a model is
that the solution will be the result of facts and analysis
rather than of opinions and feelings.
▫ Identification of the real problem is extremely
important.
▫ If the wrong cause and solution for that cause is
selected, the problem will still be there.
18. b. Fishbone analysis
• What is the fishbone analysis tool?
▫ Fishbone diagram is an analysis tool which provides a systematic way of
understanding problems and the root causes of those problems. The
design of the diagram looks like the skeleton of a fish hence, it is referred
to as the fishbone diagram.
▫ Invented by Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa, a Japanese quality control
statistician, also referred to as the Ishikawa diagram or cause-and-effect
diagram.
▫ Fishbone diagram is of great value in assisting teams in categorizing the
many potential causes of problems or issues in a systematic way and
helps identify root causes.
19. Fishbone analysis
• It is drawn as part of a brainstorming session, the central
problem is visualized as the head of the fish, with the
skeleton divided into branches showing contributing
causes of different parts of the problem.
• It is used when
▫ You need to study a problem to determine the root cause
▫ Want to study all the possible reasons why a process is having
difficulties or problems.
▫ To study why a process is not performing properly and/or
producing the expected results
20. Fishbone analysis
• How is it used?
▫ Draw a fishbone diagram
▫ List the problem/issue to be studied in the head of the fish
▫ Label each bone of the fish. The major categories typically used
are:
The 6 M‟s:
Methods, Machines, Materials, Manpower, Measurement, Manageme
nt
The 4 P‟s: Place, Procedure, People, Policies
The 4 S‟s: Surroundings, Suppliers, Systems, Skills
▫ Label each bone with one of these categories and for each
category try to identify factors that account for the problem in
each category. Continue asking, “Why is this happening?” and put
additional factors .
21. Fishbone analysis
▫ Continue until you no longer get useful information as you ask, “Why is
that happening?”
▫ Analyze the results of the fishbone after you and your team members
agree that an adequate amount of detail has been provided under each
major category.
Do this by looking for those items that appear in more than one category.
These become the „most likely causes”.
▫ For those items identified as the “most likely causes”, the team should
reach consensus on listing those items in priority order with the first
item being the most probable” cause.
• Use the fishbone diagram on the next slide to solve a key
problem
22. Fishbone Analysis Diagram for 6M‟s
6M‟s
Name Your
Cause Here
Name Your
Cause Here
Name Your
Cause Here
Name Your
Cause Here
Name Your
Cause Here
Name Your
Cause Here
Name Your
Cause Here
Name Your
Cause Here
Name Your
Cause Here
Name Your
Cause Here
Name Your
Cause Here
Name Your
Cause Here
Name Your
Problem Here
Name Your
Cause Here
Name Your
Cause Here
Name Your
Cause Here
Name Your
Cause Here
Name Your
Cause Here
Name Your
Cause Here
23. Fishbone analysis
• It is possible to customize your fishbone with categories that
best suit or describe your problem. This involves substituting
the traditional categories ie. 6Ms, 4P‟s, 4S‟s with your own
categories
The 6 M‟s:
Methods, Machines, Materials, Manpower, Measurement, Manageme
nt
The 4 P‟s: Place, Procedure, People, Policies
The 4 S‟s: Surroundings, Suppliers, Systems, Skills
An example is on the next slide
26. Characteristics of an effective
problem solver
• Effective problem solvers:
▫ have confidence in their ability to learn and their ability to solve
problems.
▫ rely on their own judgment. Though they know there is wisdom
in counsel, they respect their own decision-making abilities.
▫ are not fearful of being wrong or of making mistakes.
▫ are not fast answerers.
▫ are flexible and are often capable of seeing more than one answer
to a question or a problem.
27. Characteristics of an effective
problem solver
• Effective problem solvers
▫ know the difference between fact and opinion and
understand the need for valid evidence.
▫ do not need to have an absolute, final, irrevocable
solution to every problem.
▫ have methods for approaching and solving problems.
▫ think about their thinking and review their problem
solving methods in order to sharpen these tools for
future problems they will encounter
28. Characteristics of an effective
problem solver
• Effective problem solvers
▫ have a "can do" attitude!
▫ consider every position as though it were their
own
▫ avoid the experience trap.
▫ gain commitment from all parties involved
▫ seek win-win solutions
29. As part of problem solving…
• The supervisor is not expected to solve ALL problems instead s/he
should know how to
▫ refer the problem to the proper people,
▫ delegate appropriately, and
▫ keep work moving.
• The supervisor needs to take complete responsibility for getting the
facts needed.
30. As part of problem solving…
• Avoid making a major issue out of each problem.
▫ Good planning can avert many crises
▫ Put each issue into perspective so that alternatives can be
evaluated and an appropriate amount of time can be devoted to
finding the solution.
• Avoid inappropriate responses to failure.
▫ Acknowledge mistakes, but do not dwell and agonize over them.
It is more important to learn whatever lesson the mistake can
teach, and then move on.
31. As part of problem solving…
• Remember to draw on easily available information.
▫ Have some of the alternatives been tried before?
▫ If so, what was the outcome?
▫ Also consult with other colleagues in the organization
or with outside experts.
• Beware of promising too much.
▫ Don‟t make promises you can‟t keep to your
subordinates or your boss.
34. Types of Decisions
• What would be your approach to the 3 types of
decisions?
▫ How would you go about making a
Routine decision?
Adaptive decision?
Innovative decision?
Who would you involve?
Would you delegate the decision making?
Would you pass it on to your boss?
Would you consult a colleague or an outside
expert?
Would you ask your team members for their
input?
What process would you use?
Would you insist on what you believe is the best
decision or discard yours in favour of what the
team decides?
35. 1- experience and knowledge .
2- creating thinking.
3- self concept.
4- stress
5- interpersonal conflict
6- time available, money, energy
Factors affecting decision making
36. Factors affecting decision making
7-Routine versus non routine decision.
8-Risk associated with the decision.
9- Critical nature of work.
10-Written guidelines.
11-Organization‟s attitude toward decision making.
12-Amount and kind of information available.
13-Degree of acceptance of decision and support.
14-Manager‟s personal ability
37. Ingredients for Good Decision Making
• Follow a systematic process
▫ This process is usually similar to the problem solving process
involving between 5 and 8 steps
• Involve the team
• Delegate
▫ Usually routine decisions can be delegated
• Brainstorm
▫ This gives you a variety of alternatives to a decision
• Be creative
• Be objective
▫ Don‟t be emotionally attached to a particular decision even when
it may not be the best.
38. The decision making process
• Characteristics of an effective decision making process:
• Effective decisions:
• Are conducted in a systematic, comprehensive way of
thinking.
• The consequences of the implemented decision are
determined.
• They result in positive outcomes and fewer negative
consequences.
• Are based on a "Goal-oriented" analysis of the situation, its
problems, and their alternative solutions.
39. The decision making process
1) Define the problem
▫ State the problem in broad terms
2) Gather information: from where!!!
• Stakeholders:
▫ Individuals, teams that are affected by the problem or its solution.
• Facts & data
▫ Research
▫ Results from experimentation and studies.
▫ Interviews of "experts" and trusted sources.
▫ Observed events, past or present, either personally observed
40. The decision making process
3) Develop and Weigh Alternatives
▫ Look at the situation in different ways; find a new
perspective that hasn‟t thought of before. Once you have
listed or mapped alternatives, be open to their possibilities.
▫ After listing possible alternatives, evaluate them without
prejudice, no matter how appealing or distasteful
▫ Consider all criteria. While a particular decision may solve
the problem, it may not work if
resources aren't available, if people won't accept it, or if it
causes new problems
41. The decision making process
4) Select the best alternative
• Don't consider any alternative as "perfect solution." If there were,
there probably wouldn't be a problem in the first place
• Consider your intuition, or inner feelings in deciding on a course of
action
• Return to a trusted outsider: Is there something you missed?
Does he/she see a problem with your solution?
42. The decision making process
• 5) Implement the decision
▫ until it is acted on, a decision is only a good intention
• 6) Monitor progress
43. In making good decisions…
• Work with others … why
▫ Supervisors might encourage subordinates to come up with
alternatives to a situation requiring a solution.
▫ Team members can contribute more ideas for alternatives than
an individual working alone.
▫ The team will have a broader perspective since the experience of
the team is broader than an individual‟s experience.
▫ People involved in the decision will better understand an
alternative selected and also be more likely to support the
decision.
44. In making good decisions…
▫ Involvement of subordinates in decision making provides
an opportunity for improving morale and employee self-
esteem.
▫ Recognition of the contributions of people is a powerful
motivator.
• Note however that
▫ Group decision making is slower than individual decision
making.
▫ There is an opportunity cost to the organization when employees
spend time in meetings rather than selling.
▫ If one person dominates the decision-making process, the value
of group input is lost.
45. In making good decisions…
• The supervisor should be wise to involve
subordinates in some but not all decisions.
▫ When a decision must be made quickly, like in an
emergency, the supervisor should probably make it alone.
▫ When the supervisor needs to build support for a solution,
such as in cutting costs or improving productivity, the team
process is useful.
▫ When the consequences of a poor decision are great, the
benefits of the group‟s collective wisdom are worth the time
and expense of gathering the input
46. In making good decisions…
• Since a primary benefit of team decision making is the
variety of opinions and expertise, a supervisor leading a
decision-making meeting should be sure that everyone is
participating.
▫ The supervisor should concentrate on listening and
encouraging the input of others.
If someone is not participating, the supervisor may have to ask
for his or her opinion or thoughts on the matter at hand.
Whenever supervisors ask for inputs from subordinates, you
should be sure you intend to use the information
47. In making good decisions…
• Brainstorm
▫ It is another way to generate ideas in a team. It is the
process of coming up with as many ideas as possible.
▫ It may be structured, that is, each person takes a turn
suggesting an idea or unstructured that is individuals call
out whatever comes to mind.
▫ Team members state their ideas no matter how far-
reaching they may seem.
▫ No one may criticize or even comment on an idea until the
end of the process.
▫ All ideas are recorded.
▫ Evaluation or follow-up on ideas takes place after all ideas
are suggested.
48. In making good decisions…
• Be creative
▫ Creativity is the ability to bring about something imaginative or
new.
▫ In decision making, creativity means being able to generate
alternatives that are innovative or different from what has been
used in the past.
Thinking outside the box
• A fundamental way to become more creative is to be open to your
own ideas.
▫ think of as many alternatives as you can
▫ jot them down
▫ don‟t evaluate them until after you have finished the list
49. Gradients of agreement
• This is a tool that supports team decision making.
▫ When teams are trying to come to agreement on an issue
there is rarely 100% agreement or 100% disagreement.
▫ Gradients of agreement can help to identify those “shades”
between the two extremes and send an indicator to the
Supervisor on whether there is strong or weak support for a
decision and therefore whether to go ahead and implement
even if the outcome of the team decision process is a “YES”.
Is it a strong “YES” or a weak “YES”
• It allows the team to identify where each person stands on the
issue and builds self awareness and ownership in the
decision-making process.
50. Gradients of agreement
• Consensus in team decision making is very important.
▫ It means that each team member indicates that they buy-in to the
decision and actively support its implementation, even if they did not
think it was the very best decision.
▫ The definition of consensus may be clear, but the part about “yes, I buy-
in” and “no, I don‟t buy-in” is a little more complicated.
• One reason for the complication is that “yes” and “no” can have
many different meanings.
▫ Yes might mean “I love this decision” or it might mean “I‟ll support this
decision even though I preferred a different proposal.”
▫ No might mean “I‟m not yet convinced but I‟m getting there” or it
might mean “I could never ever live with that decision.”
51. Gradients of agreement
• An expanded vocabulary to account for gradients of “yes” and “no”
helps team members better describe their thinking and feelings
about a proposal and be honest.
▫ Team members can register less-than-whole-hearted support without
fearing that their statement will be interpreted as a veto.
▫ It also provides the team with a way to gauge support quickly and with
less ambivalence tension.
• The scale has eight gradients of agreement.
▫ from “Enthusiastic Support” to “Strong Objection”
52. Gradients of agreement
3. Agree with reservations: “I can live with it”
4. Abstain: “I have no opinion”
5. Stand Aside: I don‟t like this but I don‟t want
to hold back the team
Lukewarm
Support
1. Fully Support: “I like it”
2. Endorsement with minor concerns: “I
basically like it”
Enthusiastic
Support
53. Gradients of agreement
6. Disagreement, but willing to go with majority - “I want my disagreement
noted, but I‟ll support the decision.”
7. Disagreement, with request not to be involved in implementation - “I
don‟t want to stop anyone else, but I don‟t want to be involved in
implementing it.”
Meager Support
I can‟t support the decision
Strong
Objection
54. Gradients of agreement
• When using the gradients of agreement, write the gradients in a visible
location in the meeting room. You can use numbers to represent the
different gradients – e.g., 1 for “fully support” and 8 for “strongly
object”.
• 1. Clearly state the issue under discussion
▫ Remember a team may have very scattered results if the topic and focus
of the discussion is vague or poorly understood.
• 2. Ask team members to express their level of support at this time in the
process.
▫ There are a variety of ways to capture their level of support:
Ask for a show of hands – “Please raise your hand if you are at
#1, endorsement.” Then repeat for #2, etc.
55. Gradients of agreement
Individual statements –
Go around the room, one person at a time, and ask each
person to state which gradient he or she prefers, and why. At
this point you don‟t want group discussion; only listening for
understanding
Simultaneous declaration –
Have each person write the gradient (word or number) of his
or her preference on a large piece of paper. Have everyone
hold up his/her paper. Record the data.
Secret ballot –
Have each person write his/her preference on a slip of paper.
When everyone has finished, collect the ballots and tally the
results.
56. Gradients of agreement
• The tool provides team members with a wider choice of vocabulary
to indicate their level of support for a decision and also gives the
supervisor an indication of how strong the support is for a particular
decision
▫ In other words whether to implement it or not.
▫ There may be times when the support is not so strong and this
tool may help you determine this.
• Using this collaborative decision-making tool can help the team to
arrive at a decision that has a broad, enthusiastic level of support
and will enhance the commitment and likely success of the decision.
57. How to improve decision making
• 1- interpret information in more than one way.
• 2- set criteria of success beforehand .
• 3- ask other people
• 4- scrutinize the decision making process
• 5- Change your way of deciding and reevaluate your time, and
learning from experience
• 7- involve the team
• 8- be rational and objective
▫ Detach yourself emotionally from the decision
58. How to improve decision making
• 9. Educate people so they know how to make appropriate decisions.
• 10.Seek support of top management for decision making at the lowest
possible level
▫ decentralization
• 12. Managers should deal only with those decisions requiring their level of
expertise, support implementation of decisions, and credit the decision
maker.
• 13.Delegate decision making such as routine decisions to subordinates to
gain their trust, loyalty and to raise their self-esteem.
