This document provides advice on various aspects of academic writing such as essay structure, organization, research, and style. Some key points include: 1. An essay should have an argument supported by evidence and examples. It should answer a question or thesis. 2. When formulating a thesis, consider the topic and questions you will seek to answer. 3. Organization, introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion should clearly present the argument. 4. Conduct research by taking relevant notes and avoiding plagiarism through proper citation. 5. Edit for style, grammar, and flow of ideas between sentences and paragraphs.

1. University of Toronto
Writing Advice

2. Some General Advice on Academic Essay-Writing
1. An essay should have an argument. It should answer a question or a few related questions. It should
try to prove something—develop a single “thesis”—by reasoning and evidence, including examples
and citations.
2. When an assigned topic does not provide you with a thesis ready-made, you should formulate the
question(s) you will seek to answer in your essay. Next, develop a provisional thesis or hypothesis.
3. An essay’s organization—how it begins, develops, and ends—should be designed to present your
argument clearly.
4. Methods of composing an essay: a. Start writing early to explore and discover.
b. Write what seems readiest to be written.
c. Keep the essay’s overall purpose and organization in mind.
d. Revise sentences, with attention to transitions (checking that a reader will be able to
follow the sequences of ideas). Two other considerations are diction (exactness of words) and economy
(the fewest words with clear expression).
General

3. Essay topics
Specific topic: You are being asked to develop your powers of reasoning. Steps:
1. Note the key terms,Look for words that define the kind of reasoning you should be using: why, how,
analyse, compare, evaluate and argue.
Analyse: see the relationship of parts to whole.
Compare: find differences and similarities. Use these aspects as headings.
Evaluate: apply your judgement to the results of your analysis.
Argue: take a stand explained by reasoning. You will need to consider other viewpoints and defend
your own.
2. Note which concepts or methods the topic asks you to use.
3. Ask yourself questions about the specific topic in terms of the concepts or methods. Important: Looking
for controversies in the material to discuss themes.
4. Formulate a tentative thesis statement (a statement of your own position in the controversy, or your
preliminary answer to a question).

4. Planning and organizing
Organizing an essay
The best time to think about how to organize your paper is during the pre-writing stage. Be aware that
genres are not fixed.
an essay should not be determined by the structure of its source material. Your obligation is to advance
your argument, not to reproduce the plot.
Thesis statement
This summary statement comes in the first paragraph. They indicate a theoretical basis and promise
substantial support.
1. It makes a definite and limited assertion that needs to be explained by further discussion.
2. It shows the emphasis and indicates the methodology of your argument
3. It shows awareness of difficulties and disagreements

5. Introductions and conclusions
● An introduction should identify your topic, provide essential context, and indicate your particular
focus in the essay.
● How to write them? Find a statistic that illustrates the seriousness of the problem; quote an expert;
mention a common misperception that your thesis will argue against; give some background
information necessary for understanding the essay and explain key scientific concepts
● A conclusion will provide a closure to the essay while placing your concepts in a wider context. It will
also add a stimulus to further thought.
● How to write them? Warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem; use
a quotation; return to an anecdote or example, and add further insight that derives from the body of
your essay.

6. Paragraphs
A paragraph is a series of sentences developing a topic. Types of paragraphs:
1. The definition paragraph defines a term.
2. The analysis or classification paragraph develops a topic by distinguishing its parts and discussing
them.
3. A comparison or a contrast paragraph compares, two sources, positions, or ideas.
4. A qualification paragraph acknowledges that what you previously asserted is not absolutely true.
5. The process paragraph involves a step-by-step description.

7. ● Methods to develop a paragraph: definition of words; analysis / classification and illustration
(examples, details, or quotations)
● How ideas flow in a paragraph? The writer should show connections, deliberate repetition of key
words use strategic pronouns and specialized linking words. ,
Topic sentences
The topic sentence is the main point of the paragraph, whereas the thesis statement is the main point of
the essay. They show how the paragraph contributes to the development of the argument. Relating your
topic sentences to your thesis can help strengthen the coherence of your essay. If you include a thesis
statement in your introduction, then think of incorporating a keyword from that statement into the topic
sentence.

8. Reading and researching
Critical Reading Towards Critical Writing
To read critically is to make judgements about how a text is argued. The person should read looking for
ways of thinking about the subject matter. How do I do it?
1. determine the purpose of the text (its thesis).
2. make some judgements about context .
3. distinguish the kinds of reasoning the text employs.
4. examine the evidence the text employs.
Taking Notes from Research Reading
1. Know what kind of ideas you need to record: facts and theories that help answer your question
2. Don’t write down too much: compress ideas in your own words, your essay must be an expression of
your own thinking
3. Label your notes intelligently: recorde bibliographic information and put notes on separate sheets

9. Previewing
It is preferable to read with certain goals in mind. This will enable you to place your focus on the proper
elements of the reading.
● Read the title—Titles are chosen to orient the reader.
● Think about the subject matter: Have you read about this topic before? Where and when? Is it linked
in some way to your personal experience?
● Who wrote this text? What information do you have about this author?
● Where was this text originally published? What would the audience expect to find in it?
● When was this text originally published? What is the significance of this time period in this field of
study?
● Read the chapter titles or the headings that break up the chapter or article. What seems to be the
general progression of ideas here?
● Why has your professor assigned this text?

10. Skimming and Scanning
Skimming is an effective method for reading to get gist of the text before beginning to read it in detail. By
first skimming a text, you can get a sense of its logical progression. Steps in skimming:
1. Read carefully the introductory paragraph.
2. Read carefully the first one or two sentences of each paragraph.
3. Keep your eyes moving and try to avoid looking up unfamiliar words.
4. Read carefully the concluding paragraph.
5. Return to the beginning and read through the text carefully, noting the complexities you missed in
your skimming process. Think about your purpose in reading this text.
Scanning is a reading technique to locate a particular fact or figure.
Summarizing
It is a good writing practice. Methods for summarizing:
1. The first sentence or two of your summary should contain the author’s thesis.
2. Divide the text into sections and write the key ideas in each section.
3. Do not plagiarize the author’s words. If you do use a few of the author’s words with quotation marks.

11. Using sources
How Not to Plagiarize
1. Quotations, paraphrases, or summaries: enclose the author’s exact words in quotation marks. Use your
own words to paraphrase or summarize the idea you want to discuss and name sources.
e.g. As Morris puts it in The Human Zoo (1983), “we can always be sure that today’s daring innovation will be
tomorrow’s respectability” (p. 189). [APA system]
2. Specific facts used as evidence for your argument: First consider whether the facts you’re mentioning
are “common knowledge”. If not, show that you got them from an authoritative source.
e.g. In September 1914, more than 1300 skirmishes were recorded on the Western Front.8 [traditional
endnote/footnote system]
3. Distinctive or authoritative ideas, whether you agree with them or not
e.g. One writer (Von Daniken, 1970) even argues that the Great Pyramid was built for the practical purpose of
guiding navigation. [APA system]

12. Standard Documentation Formats
● Traditional Endnotes or Footnotes with Superscript Numbers (humanities):
1. When you refer to a source the second time, you use only the author’s last name and the page
number (e.g., Smith, 435).
2. Notes are indented
3. In listing a webpage as a source, include the date you read the page and the URL.
● MLA System: Parenthetical Author-Page References (humanities)
This format uses parenthetical in-text citations. The basic constituents of any source are: Author, Title of
Source. Title of Container, Other Contributors, Version, Number, Publisher, Publication Date, Location.
● APA System: Parenthetical Author-Date References (social sciences)
Author(s). (Date). Title of Book/ "Title of Article"/ Title of Periodical/ Volume. Pages. Place of Publication. Publisher.

13. Using Quotations
● How do I introduce a short quotation?
When you quote a full sentence, you should place a colon at the end of the introductory sentence. When
you quote an incomplete sentence, you should place a comma or a colon after the introductory phrase.
● How do I introduce a long quotation?
you should introduce it with a full sentence that helps capture how it fits into your argument. If your
quotation is longer than four lines, set it off as a block quotation.
● How do I alter my sources?
If you remove text, then replace the missing text with an ellipsis-three periods surrounded by spaces.
● Verbs to introduce my quotations
Argues, writes, points out, concludes, comments, notes, maintains, suggests, insists observes,
counters, asserts, states, claims, demonstrates, says, explains, reveals.

14. Specific types of writing
● Book Review or Article Critique: it comments on and evaluates the work in a book or article.
● Annotated bibliography: it gives an account of the research that has been done on a given topic.
● Literature review: it is an account of what has been published on a topic by scholars and researchers.
● Abstracts: they give a first impression of the document that follows, letting readers decide whether to
continue reading and showing them what to look for if they do.
● Comparative essay: it is a comparison about at least two (possibly more) items: positions on an issue,
theories, figures, texts or events.
● Admission letter: it is letter or personal statement that is written with the aim of applying for graduate or
professional school.
● Application letters and Résumés
● Academic proposal: it is the first step in producing a thesis or major project. Its intent is to convince a
supervisor that your topic and approach are sound, so that you gain approval to proceed with the
research.

15. Style and editing
Revising And Editing
1. First check whether you have fulfilled the intention of the assignment.
● Have you performed the kind of thinking the assignment sheet asked for?
● Have you used concepts and methods of reasoning?
● Have you given adequate evidence for your argument?
2. Then look at overall organization.
3. Now polish and edit your style by moving to smaller matters such as word choice, sentence structure,
grammar, punctuation, and spelling.

16. Punctuation
1. Commas:
● When the introductory phrase is short, you can omit the comma; when it is longer, a comma will help your
reader recognize where the main clause begins.
● When the introductory phrase includes a participle (a verb form ending in –ing or –ed), add a comma.
● When joining two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction, you place a comma before the
conjunction.
2. Semicolons:
● It is used to combine two closely related independent clauses into one sentence.
● It is used to separate list elements that are long or complex.

17. 3. Colons:
● Colons offer a way of urging your reader forward. The words preceding the colon create an
expectation; the words following the colon fulfill it.
4. Dashes:
● Like commas, dashes are used to set off interrupting clauses or phrases, but a pair of dashes will
tend to call more attention to what lies in between.
● Acting alone, a dash, like a colon, allows you to expand on or to complete an idea.
5. Parentheses:
● Parentheses offer a third way of introducing interrupting material. Dashes provide a more forceful
alternative to commas, parentheses offer a modest one.

18. English as a second language
Expressions of quantity
1. With fractions, percentages and indefinite quantifiers (e.g., all, few, many, much, some), the verb
agrees with the preceding noun or clause:
● With a singular or non-count noun or clause, use a singular verb: Half of what he writes is
undocumented.
● With a plural noun, use a plural verb: One-third of the students have graduate degrees.
● With a collective noun, use either a singular or a plural verb: Half of my family lives/live in Canada.
2. Expressions of time, money and distance usually take a singular verb: Ten kilometres is too far to
walk.

19. 3. The words majority and minority:
● When majority/minority mean an unspecified number, use a singular verb: The majority holds no
strong views.
● When majority/minority mean a specific percentage, you may use either a singular or a plural verb: A
75% majority have/has voted against the measure.
● When majority/minority refers to a specified set of persons, use a plural verb: A majority of
Canadians have voted for change.
4. Adjectives preceded by "the" and used as plural nouns take a plural verb: The rich get richer.
5. Expressions using the phrase "number of":
● They take a singular verb when referring to a single quantity: The number of students registered in
the class is 20.
● They take plural verbs when they are used as indefinite quantifiers: A number of students were late.

20. Using Gerunds and Infinitives
● Some common verbs followed by a gerund:
acknowledge, accuse of, admit, advise, anticipate, appreciate, avoid, complete, consider, defer, delay,
deny, discuss, entail, look after, insist on, involve, justify, mention, plan on, postpone, recall, resent,
recommend, resist, risk, sanction, suggest, take care of, tolerate.
● Some common verbs followed by an infinitive:
afford, agree, appear, arrange, beg, care, claim, consent, decide, demand, deserve, expect, fail, hesitate,
hope, learn, manage, neglect, need, offer, plan, prepare, pretend, promise, refuse, seem, struggle, swear,
threaten, volunteer, wait, want, wish.
● Some common verbs followed by an indirect object plus an infinitive:
ask, beg, cause, challenge, convince, encourage, expect, forbid, force, hire, intruct, invite, need, order,
persuade, remind, require, teach, tell, urge, want, warn.

21. Bibliography
● Cayley, R. (1996). Advice on Academic Writing. Retrieved May 25, 2018,
from: http://advice.writing.utoronto.ca/