Contextual Research [1.1,1.2]

Theorists Research and Key Concepts, Contextual Research – [1.1,1.2]
In this document, I have compiled detailed notes on theorists, theories as well as key conventions that
will help me when creating my final project. In this research, I have also been able to utilise my GCSE
Media Studies work which included key points in creating a media product and also analysing it.
I have also included audience classifications research, so that I am already considering and
constantly thinking about my target audience, even if it hasn’t been fully defined and outlined in detail.
Practitioners/Social Media Influencers
Cindy Sherman
 Cindy Sherman is a contemporary master of socially critical photography.
 Sherman turned to photography towards the end of the 1970s in order to
explore a wide range of common female social roles, or personas.
 She is a key figure of the ‘Pictures Generation’ – a loose circle of American
artists who came to artistic maturity and critical recognition during the early
1980s, a period notable for the rapid and widespread proliferation of mass
media imagery.
 Summary of The Pictures Generation: A loose affiliation of artists, influenced
by Conceptual and Pop art, who utilized appropriation and montage to reveal
the constructed nature of images. Experimenting with a variety of media,
including photography and film, their works exposed cultural tropes and
stereotypes in popular imagery, by reworking well-known images, their art
challenged notions of individuality and authorship, making the movement an
important part of postmodernism. The artists created a more savvy and critical
viewing culture, while also expanding notions of art to include social criticism
for a new generation of viewers saturated by mass media. Influenced by the
ubiquity of advertising and the highly saturated image culture of the United
States, Pictures Generation artists produced work that itself often resembles
advertising. [The Art Story].
 Turning the camera on herself in a game of extended role of playing of
fantasy Hollywood, fashion, mass advertising, and ‘girl next door’ roles and
poses, Sherman ultimately called her audience’s attention the powerful

machinery and make-up that kay behind the countless images circulating in
an incessantly public, ‘plugged in’ culture.
 For Untitled Film Stills series, Sherman began photographing herself staged
in various scenes that appeared to be from classical Hollywood film: a girl
arriving in ‘the big city’, a girl cooking over the stove, a girl in lingerie dressing
herself. The stills seem recognizable, but are taken from no particular movie,
mimicking typical cinematic angles, lighting and dramatization to convey a
sense of the familiar.
 Sherman draws attention to the fact that a women’s appearance is often
associated with her identity: a woman is valued in society to be looked at. The
film theorist Laura Mulvey established the term ‘male gaze’ to illustrate the
typical perspective of a filmgoer, who assumes the role of a male subject.
Sherman’s reworking of these archetypes, as creator and character, interrupts
the male gaze and re-establishes the women in the photographs as agents,
while simultaneously complicating the relationship as she freezes herself in
these multiple roles.
 Sherman has continued to transform herself, displacing the diversity of human
types and stereotypes in her images. She often works in series, improvising
on themes such as centrefolds (1981) and society portraits (2008).
 Untitled #216, from her history portraits (1981), exemplifies her use of
theatrical effects to embody different roles and her lack of attempt to hide her
efforts: often her wigs are slipping off, her prosthetics are peeling away, and
her makeup is poorly blended. She highlights the artificiality of these
fabrications ‘a metaphor for the artificiality of all identity construction’
 While she sometimes portrays glamorous characters, Sherman has always
been more interested in the grotesque. In the 1980s and 90s, series such as
the disasters (1986-89) and the sex pictures (1992) confronted viewers with
the strange and ugly aspects of humanity in explicit, visceral images. In these
series and throughout all of her work, Sherman subverts the visual shorthand
we use to classify the world around us, drawing attention to the artificiality and
ambiguity of these stereotypes and undermining their reliability for
understanding a much more complicated reality.
Pamela Hanson

 While also a filmmaker, Pamela Hanson is best known for her fashion and
lifestyle photography.
 She captures her famous subjects during candid moments of intimacy –
stealing kisses or taking cigarette breaks – infusing her work with a
spontaneity usually absent from heavily staged fashion photography.
 Hanson is one of the first women to succeed in fashion photography. With
over 20 years of experience, she has become an ‘irreplaceable part of the
photography community’.
 She photographs a variety of styles from editorial, advertising, personal and
even landscape also, showing her as a talented photographer who is not
stuck to one style of photography.
Richard Avedon
 What makes Richard Avedon unique? – Throughout his career Avedon has
maintained a unique style all his own. Famous for their minimalism, Avedon
portraits are often well lit and in front of white backdrops.
 His iconic portraits of celebrities, spanned more than half of the 20th century,
and included Marilyn Monroe, Audrey Hepburn, The Beatles, Andy Warhol
and Tupac Shakur
 “My portraits are more about me than they are about the people I
photograph.”
 His interest in photography began at an early age, and he joined the Young
Men’s Hebrew Association camera club when he was only 12 years old.
 Avedon joined the armed forces in 1942 during World War 2, serving as
Photographer’s Mate Second Class in the U.S Merchant Marine. “My job was
to identify photographs. I must have taken pictures of one hundred thousand
faces before it occurred to me I was becoming a photographer.”
 At 22, he began working as a freelance photographer, primarily for Harper’s
Bazaar. Initially denied the use of a studio by the magazine, he photographed
models and fashions on the streets, in nightclubs, at the circus, on the beach
and at other uncommon locations.

 He was fascinated by photography’s capacity for suggesting the personality
and evoking the life of his subjects. He registered poses, attitudes, hairstyles,
clothing accessories as vital, revelatory elements of an image. He has
complete confidence in the two-dimensional nature of photography, the rules
of which he bent to his stylistic and narrative purposes.
 “My photographs don’t go below the surface. I have great faith in surfaces. A
good one is full of clues”.
 Avedon’s first museum retrospective was held at the Smithsonian Institution in
1962. Many major museum shows followed, including two at the Metropolitan
Museum of Art (1978 and 2002), the Minneapolis Institute of Arts (1970), the
Amon Carter Museum of American Art (1985), and the Whitney Museum of
American Art (1994).
Annie Leibovitz
 Leibovitz is a celebrated American photographer best known for her engaging
and dramatic celebrity portraits.
 Her images reflect intimate or staged moments that reveal the playful and
expressive aspects of her sitter, as seen in Disney Dream Portraits (2011).
 In 1970, she began working as a commercial photographer at Rolling Stone
magazine, and soon became the first woman to be named chief
photographer. In 1975 she documented the Rolling Stones’ six-month North
American concert tour, during which she shot several widely reproduced
photographs of guitarist Keith Richards and lead singer Mick Jagger.
 One of her most famous pieces of work, perhaps her most famous is a portrait
of Lennon and Yoko Ono that was published on the cover of Rolling Stone in
January 1981. In the picture, shot mere hours before Lennon’s assassination,

the singer-songwriter is nude and wrapped like a fetus around his fully clothed
wife.
 She left the publication and began working at Vanity Fair where she
developed her style of staged and brightly lit portraits, and still regularly
contributes to the magazine, as well as VOGUE.
 She has cited both Richard Avedon (also researched above) and Henri-
Cartier Bresson as influences to her work, as well as taking photos during her
family vacations as a child.
 In 1991, she became the first woman ever to have a solo exhibition at the
National Portrait Gallery in Washington, D.C.
 In 1999 she published a collection of photographs titled Women, with an
essay by intellectual and writer Susan Sontag.
Alyana Cazalet
 Cazalet is an artist and illustrator who draws with a loose and expressive
style.
 She studied Applied Arts when she lived in Moscow, and printmaking after
moving to London. Alyana has plenty of creative experience including
designing textile prints, making puppets and photography.
 She’s influenced by everything from Jazz to dark Russian literature, and from
Hieronymus Bosch to the Moomins.
 Her style is expressive and carnival-esque, and it is evolving all the time as
she experiments with new techniques and different media.
Niki Demar
 Demar is a fashion and beauty Youtuber, singer/songwriter, and actress. She
and her twin sister Gabi began their careers in 2010 with their older sister
Alex Demartino, on their channel 00RemakeGirls. She now runs her own

channel, Niki Demar (with more than 2 million subscribers), alongside her joint
channel, Niki and Gabi, with her twin sister. Their channel has earned over 9
million subscribers.
Dear Popular retail stores, a message for you:
In this YouTube video by influencer Niki Demar, she
explores the difference between guys and girls’ clothing,
specifically graphic tees and how they follow certain
stereotypes.
One of the stores Demar focuses on is Urban Outfitters.
In this video, she is criticising how clothing brands
stereotype with genders and makes the point which she
consistently refers back to being; ‘guys have better
graphic shirts with better quality’ and ‘girls = pink and flowers’ making the argument
that girls’ clothing is very basic and doesn’t really step out of the box in comparison
to boys clothing.
Demar’s Instagram
Looking at her Instagram, there is a common theme of bright colours contrasting with
her vibrant red hair. In terms of the style of her Instagram, creative is an
understatement. From the different types of photos, to the layout and presentation,
Demar’s Instagram is very aesthetically pleasing to an audience.
In the example shown above, we see Demar’s editing skills ‘shine through’. In
multiple YouTube video, she has discussed how she has enjoyed learning how to
‘work Instagram’ and ‘use it to its full potential’ by utilising all of their features, having
a theme that showcasing her personality and showing her audience her day-to-day
life. One thing that makes this specific photo stand out, is the intense editing, unlike
a lot of her photos where the contrast and saturation are brought up to make the red
hair stand out, this photo is using photoshop techniques and effects. Something I like
about this photo and think makes it interesting to the audience is the colour scheme
of choice. As she is rocking a very vibrant hair colour, that tends to be the star of the
show and she has used it her perfectly in combination with a warm tone,
orange/yellow background complimenting the red locks beautifully. Another thing

which makes the photo interesting is the ‘collage effect’. This style of editing has
become very popular and ‘trendy’ through the end of 2020 to early 2021, with many
influencers incorporating it into their feed and also using it in brand promotions and
collaborations, being able to showcase the product fully. I personally like this style of
edit as it is very vibrant, and the creativity doesn’t have limits.
Theories and Media Concepts
On the right, here is a list
with diagrams of different
types of shot which can
be used in both print and
film pieces.
This will help me in
creating my product as it
gives me an idea of what
each type of image will
look like, and what it will
present to the audience.
Mis-en-scène
The arrangement of properties, scenery in an image. A French word for ‘what is in
the frame’.
Code and Definition Example What it might suggest
Setting
The place where the media
text takes place will be
loaded with meaning either
for the story or the product
being advertised
 Inside (bedroom)
 Outside (garden)
 Time/Period
 Feeling trapped,
closed in
 Open air, freedom
 When and where
(history)

Props
A prop is not there just
because it has to be. Props
are carefully chosen. They
should tell you something
about the person/people in
the image.
 A racer
 Unicycle
 Mountain Bike
 Fast, sporty, in a
hurry
 Performer, show-off,
funny, extrovert
 Tough, durable,
adventurous
Non-Verbal Communication
All people in an image are
actors. Every expression they
put on and every position
they take is put there to mean
something.
 Facial Expressions
 Slouching
 Stiff
 Sad/Happy, confident,
scared
 Lazy, relaxing, good
for nothing
 Prim, proper, or on
edge
Dress/Costume/Make-Up
A dress or costume is what
actors are clothed in and it
will signify something about
them, the character or
product they are advertising.
Make-up is whatever is
applied to the face or hands
to add meaning to the
character or product being
advertised
 Glasses (thick
framed)
 Jewellery
 Make-Up (heavy)
 Make-Up (light)
 Glasses (small)
 Sturdy, long lasting,
old-fashioned
 Suggest affluence, or
maybe cheapness
 Posing
 Take care to show
natural beauty
 Wise, studious
Colours
Colours carry their own
meaning. You must
investigate the meaning of
the colours when analysing
the image
 Red
 Green
 Blue
 Brown
 Gold
 Purple
 Poision, danger, lust
 Envy, jealousy
 Happiness, cold
 Warm, natural, dull
 Affluence, warmth
 Royalty, velvet soft
Todorov’s theory of narrative
Tzvetan Todorov studied fairy tales and came up with the following narrative theory:
1. Equilibrium – a state of normality
2. Disruption – an even disrupts the normality
3. Recognition – the hero recognises the disruption.
4. Complications – the hero meets problems in trying to restore the equilibrium
5. New Equilibrium
Levi-Strauss binary opposites
Strauss claimed thar stories can only exist with binary opposites, which are elements
that are against each other, for example:
Macro binary opposites
 Hero – Villain
 Protagonist – Antagonist
 Motivator – Observer
 Empowered – Victim
Micro binary opposites

 Woman – Man
 Beauty – Ugly
 Strong – Weak
 Decisive – Indecisive
 Articulate – Inarticulate
 Old – Young
 Rich – Poor
Audience Segmentation Models and Theories
Audience
There are two concepts to understand when looking at audiences:
 Construction – This is where an institution devises a product that should
appeal to a set audience
 Consumption – This is the actual watching, listening or buying of the product
Advertisers’Social Grades
Class Description % of population
A – Thriving
1
2
3
Wealthy achievers, suburban areas
Affluent greys, rural communities
Prosperous pensioners
15.0
2.1
2.6
B – Expanding
4
5
Affluent executives, family areas
Well-off w orkers, family areas
4.1
8.0
C – Rising
6
7
8
Affluent urbanites, tow n and city areas
Prosperous professionals, metropolitan areas
Better of executives, inner city areas
2.5
2.3
3.8
D – Settling
9
10
Comfortable middle-agers, mature, home-ow ning
areas
Skilled w orkers, home-ow ning areas
13.6
10.7
E – Aspiring
11
12
New homeow ners, mature communities
White-collar w orkers, better off multi-ethnic areas
9.6
4.0
F – Striving
13
14
15
16
17
Older people, less prosperous areas
Council estate residents, better-off homes
Council estate residents, high unemployment
Council estate residents, greatest hardship
People in multi-ethnic, low -income areas
3.6
10.8
2.8
2.3
2.0
Grade Social Class Chief Income Earner’s
Occupation (% of
Pop.2008)
A Upper Middle Class Higher managerial,administrative,
or professional (4%)
B Middle Class Intermediate managerial,
administrative or professional
(23%)

C1 Lower Middle Class Supervisory or clerical and junior
managerial administrative or
professional (29%)
C2 Skilled Working Class Skilled manual workers (21%)
D Working Class Semi and unskilled manual
workers (15%)
E Those at the lowest levels of subsistence Casual or lowest grade workers,
pensioners and others who
depend on the welfare state for
their income (8%)
Psychographics (the psychologicalstate of the consumer)
Group Description % of Population
Belongers Traditionalists, cautious, conforming
conservatives, nest builders, stay at
homers, interest in pension plans,
insurance
33%
Emulators Smaller, more impressionable, young.
Identity seekers, lack self-confidence,
confused and vulnerable. Advertisers
prey on their insecurities by offering
them role models and hero’s and
reassurance of group acceptance and
friendship
15%
Emulator - Achievers Materialists, acquisitive consumers,
favour designer labels, consumer
goods as evidence of accomplishment,
success and good taste.
20%
Socially Conscious
Achievers
Greying hippies, children of the 60s,
concerned more w ith personal
fulfilment, against conspicuous
consumption, conscious of
environment, scepticalof advertising
20%
Socially Conscious Type A This group is concerned about how
their actions affect the world around
them. They w ant to make the w orld a
better place; recycle, drive fuelefficient
cars etc. They w illresponse to
messages about making a difference
to the society or the environment
Socially Conscious Type B This group has given up on humanity.
They are self-sufficient and w illnot
respond to messages about products.
Need-Directed Minimum w age earners or receiving
benefits. Mainly concerned w ith
survivalthan consumption. Advertisers
not interested in this group. No
expandable income
15%
Lifestyle Types
Here are some different lifestyle types to consider when creating my product
Type Definition
Admiration Seekers People who wish to have products that make others admire
them
Pleasure Seekers People who look for products to give them a sense of
excitementor buzz
Security and Stability Seekers People who search for products that will give them a sense of
stabilityand security(e.g., insurance and mortgage protection)
Anti-Authority Rebels People who seek products that will give them a sens e ofbeing
different and going againstsociety’s norms.
Joiners People who buy products that make them feel accepted in
society.
Generation X People who don’tknow what they wantand don’tcare so will
aim to buy any product

Materialists People who buy products that only have material value
Complainers People who are cynical aboutany productand believe that all
products don’twork as well as they should do
Do-Gooders People who always try to do good deed to make themselves
feel good aboutthemselves
Achievers People who are well off and have achieved a lot in their jobs
and can afford the expensive products/brands
Experimentalists People who don’tmind taking a risk on a new product that
society hasn’treallystarted using yet
Working Class Puritans People who are keen on saving and will only buy products that
are essential,notluxurious.
Struggling Poor People who have very little income so can only afford the cheap
versions ofall products
Resigned Poor People who accept they can’t even afford the cheap versions of
products
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
This theory has been very much linked to how advertisers target the wants and
needs of their target audience by appealing to them on as many levels as the
pyramid has.
For example, Coca Cola can fulfil the psychological needs of level 1, but the social
acceptance that comes from drinking Coke Zero could appeal to those on level 3. In
addition, Diet Coke consumers could be drinking the sugar-free drink to help boost
their self-esteem at level 4 to try achieving the self-actualisation of being fit and
healthy.
Self-Actualisation
The need to succeed and become what you
wish to be
Esteem
Self-esteem, status, respect and admiration
Love/Belonging
The need to belong to a group
Safety
Personal security (jobs, friends)
Psychological
Food, shelter, etc.
Uses and Gratifications
The Uses and Gratification theory is used to analyse why people interact
with/consume media products. Audiences choose media for their own purposes and
to satisfy particular needs. Audiences are active in engaging in media.

Personal Identity
Our lives may be reflected in the text (we may see a storyline or an incident that has
happened to us at some point in our lives or at the same time)
Diversion, Escapism, Entertainment
The text may help us escape from reality for a while (almost like a safety valve from the
frustrations of daily life)
Personal Relationships, Social Interaction
We may treat the text as a friend, or a discourse in our life (the regularity of EastEnders
helps audiences build a relationship with the programme
Surveillance, Information
A text may give us information about a particular issue/subject
SecondaryAudiences
Primary Audience
 Your main target audience
Secondary Audience
 Who will also engage with the product as a secondary?
AdvertisementTheories
These theories illustrate how and why advertising is effective in influencing the
customers’ behaviour and accomplishing its objectives. There are various theories
on advertising and most of them propagate that the success of advertising is
controlled by the main practices being carried out which include frequent brand
exposure and repetitive advertising.
The Mediation of Reality
 Advertisements are successful when they are integrated with other media and
environments in which they are completely submerged. Example: In a GUESS

advertisement, Paris Hilton steps down the helicopter escorted by a helper or
a boyfriend rolled into one. She manifests the expression of wealth and
glamour, playing her private life out in public as a governess, model, and
reality TV star. The ad blurs the boundaries between reality and a dream
Shifting Loyalties
 Ads mirror changing loyalties. They prompt customers to shift their loyalties
and to disown their current ones for often a relatively new brand in the market.
Example: Changing customer loyalties from Colgate, a brand which one has
been uses since ages to Close-up after watching an exciting ad on television
which revealed advantages of using close-up healthier gums and whiter teeth
The Image of the Meaning
 Advertisements carry on a strong message with a meaning instilled in them.
Ads touch our values, emotions, and the underlying beliefs. In 1962, a cultural
theorist Raymond Williams explained how advertising had swept the goal of
selling goods and is more associated with teaching social and personal
values, which is promptly entering politics too. Advertisements are organised
magic’s that hide the real intention of selling the house, which is to sell a
product to make profits. Example: Insurance companies sell their retirement
plans, showing benefits they provide in your environment.
The Hidden Message
 Certain ads misrepresent and misguide the consumers. Packard declared that
advertising is threatening since it uses psychology to form emotionally loaded
messages and as the messages are hidden, the viewers critical resilience is
dodged and minimized.
Imitative Desire
 Advertisements tend to act upon the prospect’s mind. It’s been observed that
people usually have the desire of becoming others, especially when the other
person is famous, beautiful or powerful. But the reality is it’s impossible for
someone to become like another. However, this impossibility keeps the desire
alive in all of us. The soul of the ritual is that people work in communities
through imaginative projection towards others.
Advertising Theories in Media & ProductTesting
Ever since the rise of mass communications in the early 20th century, marketers,
advertisers, and communicators have based much of their campaign strategies on a
central assumption: the premise that advertising convinces and persuades
consumers of the products they should buy. A dominant model of this strategy for the
past century has been the AIDA model, outlined formally by Timothy Joyce (1967).
Attention – Interest – Desire – Action. The AIDA model assumes that consumers are
rational; that they become aware of a brand or category, take an interest in how the
brand can benefit them, recognise their desire or fit based on the brand’s offerings,
and then take action in the form of a purchase or consumption. The model falls into
the Cognitivist, or Strong Theory, of consumer behaviour because it relies on the
belief that customers are thinking, evaluating, and acting intentionally through a
linear, cognitive purchase process. Because it is seen in the Strong Theory as

having the power to change attitudes, advertising is perceived to be persuasive and
convincing enough to move non-purchasers to start using a brand.
Advertising Theory
This theory book provides detailed and current explorations of key theories in the
advertising discipline. It gives a working knowledge of the primary theoretical
approaches of advertising, offering a comprehensive synthesis of the vast literature
in the area.
It has been developed as a forum in which to compare, contrast, and evaluate
advertising theories in a comprehensive and structured presentation. Chapters
provide concrete examples, case studies, and readings written by leading advertising
scholars and educators.

RepresentationTheory
 Representation refers to the construction in any medium (especially the mass
media) of aspects of reality such as people, places, objects and so on.
 The easiest way to understand the concept of representation is to remember
that watching a TV programme is not the same as watching something
happen in real life. All media products re-represent the real world to us; they
show us one version of reality, not reality itself. So the theory of
representation in media means thinking about how a particular person or
group of people are being presented to the audience.
 Representations require interpretation – we make judgements about them
based upon our own experiences and backgrounds.
 The way certain groups of people are represented in the media can have a
huge social image. For example, would people’s attitudes to asylum seekers
change if they were presented differently in the media.
 When media producers want you to assume certain things about a character,
they play on existing representations of people in the media. But also, they
can change the way certain groups are presented, and thus change the way
we see that particular group.
The Hypodermic Needle Theory
 Dating back to the 1920s, this theory was the first attempt to explain how
mass audiences might react to mass media. It is a model that suggests that
audiences passively (active and passive audience theory) receive the
information transmitted via a media text, without any attempt on their part to
process or challenge the data
 This theory suggests that, as an audience, we are manipulated by the
creators of media texts, and that our behaviour and thinking might be easily
changed by media-makers.
Contextual Statement

1. How are the people you researched influential to you? What do you like about
them? What specific work/scenes/programs do you like and why?
The people I have researched are influential to me because of the impact they have
on their audience. For example, Niki Demar, by her going against the ‘status quo’ it
makes her stand out to many people.
2. Why did you look at the research (books/theories) that you did?
A reason as to why I look at these specific people and theorists is because I
can utilise their work in my own. Looking at certain theories such as audience
and marketing/advertisement theories it has allowed me to think of what to
include in my product and how to make it ‘successful’. Also looking at theories
such as The Male Gaze and even Uses and Gratifications are helpful because
they are focusing on key concepts in the media used all the time.
3. Why are you making the project you currently are considering? What attracted
you to doing it? Have you ever done something like this before? Is it related to
what you want to do in the future?
I am making the product I am considering is because throughout covid,
something that has kept me grounded in a sense is discovering a new style
and being able to embrace more of my personality through clothing and also
jewellery. I feel by doing this, it is my way of expressing myself in a creative
and also personal way. In terms of this project, I have done similar pieces
such as the social media layouts however the rest is relatively new to me; I
think this will be exciting as it will give me chance to use and improve on my
skills as well as showcasing what I can do
4. How could covid affect your work? What will you do if we are in full lockdown
at Production time?
Covid can affect my work as I am limited to models to use in my products and
if we were to still be in full lockdown during production time; I might have to
result to self-portraits. As much as I would love to have a variety to show
things such as size inclusivity and diversity, that is very unlikely to happen due
to circumstances and will have to be something I go into more depth in for my
planning. In terms of equipment, I will be using, I am very fortunate that I have
access to my own personal media equipment such as editing software,
camera and lighting so that issue will not be too large for me. If lockdown
continues throughout production, I will have to limit my locations and resort to
possibly 1 model.
Bibliography
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