Twenty years on and still reinventing the wheel? A critical review of Telecollaborative Exchange in Foreign Language Education Robert O’Dowd, University of León, Spain Eurocall 2015 Keynote Presentation University of Padova, 26 August 2015 http://www.eurocall2015.it/ Abstract and Bibliography Contact: robert.odowd@unileon.es See the presentation slides (August 2015): http://www.slideshare.net/dfmro Join UNICollaboration: www.unicollaboration.eu It has been 20 years since the first major publications on online intercultural interaction and exchange began to appear in the CALL literature(Cummins & Sayers, 1995; Eck, Legenhausen & Wolff, 1995; Warschauer, 1995). Since then, we have seen telecollaboration go on to become one of the pillars of CALL research and practice. Therefore, it is appropriate that the 20th anniversary of these publications coincides with this Eurocall conference calling on us “…to unpack and examine some of the assumptions that may have become ingrained in our practice, and also to reflect on the state of CALL and language pedagogy”. As telecollaboration begins to enter the mainstream of university education, it is indeed high time thatweask ourselves some challenging questions regarding the principles which underlie our practices, the effectiveness and impact of what we do,and the potential value of our work for other areas of university teaching and learning. In this plenary Itake a critical look at both research and practice of telecollaboration over the past 20 years

1. Twenty years on and still reinventing the wheel?
A critical review of Telecollaborative Exchange in FL Education
Robert O'Dowd
Universidad de León, Spain
@robodowd
robert.odowd@unileon.es
Eurocall 2015:
Padova, 26 August 2015

2. What is Telecollaboration?
The engagement of groups of students
in online intercultural interaction and
collaboration…
with partner classes from other cultural
contexts or geographical locations….
under the guidance of educators
and/or expert facilitators (Lewis &
O’Dowd, 2015).
What’s in a name?
Virtual Exchange – Soliya / EU
•COIL (Collaborative Online
International Learning) - SUNY
•Internet-mediated Intercultural
Foreign Language Education (Belz &
Thorne)
•eTandem (Europe)/ Teletandem
(Brazil)
•eTwinning / ePals (secondary
education)
Jon Rubin (2015): “One of the problematics of this format
is that it is called by so many different names, thereby
making it harder for the practice to be more commonly
understood and implemented.”

3. How many of you have organised a
telecollaborative exchange with your students?

4. Is this book familiar to any of you?
Virtual Connections: Online Activities &
Projects for Networking Language Learners.
Mark Warschauer (Ed.) (1995) – Twenty
Years old!
Questions from the inside:
Eurocall 2015: “…to unpack and examine
some of the assumptions that may have
become ingrained in our practice, and also to
reflect on the state of CALL and language
pedagogy”
Questions from the outside:
It would good to know what kind of
‘intercultural’ exchange is actually fostered
through telecollaboration or whether
telecollaboration is mostly like to reinforce
stereotypes in mostly monologic postings?

5. My main argument today:
After 20 years of widespread use in CALL classrooms, is
Telecollaboration stuck in a comfort zone?
Comfort zone=
Limited to Foreign Language classrooms
Primarily Bilingual/Bicultural set-ups
Low risk ‘hobbies and fiestas’ tasks
Research on short-term impact of short-term exchanges
If it is as valuable as many of us think it is, shouldn’t we:
-be making it more relevant to the future needs of our students?
-provide more convincing evidence of its effectiveness?
-strive for its integration across university education (and not just in
Foreign Language classrooms)?

6. Mark Warschauer:
Virtual Connections
(1995)
Telecollaboration in
Foreign Language
Learning (1996)
Reinhard Donath:
E-Mail-Projekte im
Englischunterricht
(1996)
Ruth Vilmi:
International
Writing
Exchange
(1993-2005)
Rick Kern:
Technology, Social
Interaction, and FL
Literacy (1998)
A quick bit of history- Name the Pioneer Telecollaborators:

7. The International Tandem Network:
LINGUA project "International E-Mail
Tandem Network" (1994-1996)
IECC- Intercultural Email Classroom
Connections :
1992-2001: 28,000+ requests for e-mail
partnerships
Where could teachers find partners in the 1990’s?

8. Telecollaboration in
Foreign Language
Learning (1996) by
Mark Warschauer
(ed.)
Brave New Schools
(1995) by Jim Cummins
& Dennis Sayers
Das Transatlantische
Klassenzimmer (1997)
by Reinhard Donath
(ed).
1990’s: Reports of Good Practice begin to emerge – Research interests lie in linguistic
development and learner autonomy

9. The first clear ‘model’ of TC emerges: E-Tandem
An American student writes to her partner in Spain…
Hey Pablo!
It was great to receive your letter. I was so happy to see that you responded to my
questions. Thank you. Your responses were very informative and definitely
showed me that family life in Spain was not all I'd expected it to be (I was
surprised, for example, that your family is not religious. I assumed that most
families in Spain are, and I'm sure you have many assumptions about life in
America as well).
Your English is very good. There are only a few suggestions that I have… Some of
your sentences are too long, and would make more sense if you separated them
into two or three sentences instead. For example, "My parents are not divorced in
Spain there are very few cases of divorced" could be rewritten as "My parents are
not divorced. In Spain there are very few cases of divorce." Your letter was great
and made sense despite these things. Good work.
Las fiestas en the ciudad de Nueva York son muy locas y emocionantes. Voy a las
discotecas con mis amigas los jueves, los viernes, o los sabados. Vamos a los bars
tambien. Nosotros volvemos a nos salons de dormitorio a las cuatro de la manana.
Queremos bailar a las discotecas. Necesita tener veintiuno anos por beber el
alcohol pero la mayoria de estudiantes en las universidades tenen los "fake IDs" y
ellos beben el alcohol. … No sabo mucho de Espana. Sabo que hay un museo de
Guggenheim en Bilbao y sabo que hay muchos castillos bonitos. Que sabes de los
Estados Unidos? Como es la fiesta en Espana? Emily

10. Language Learning &
Technology Special Issue on
Telecollaboration by Julie
Belz (May 2003)
2000’s: Emergence of Empirical Studies and Focus on Intercultural Learning
Internet-Mediated
Intercultural Foreign
Language Education
by Belz & Thorne
(2006)
Network-based
Language
Teaching by Mark
Warschuaer &
Richard Kern
(2000)

11. Development of many Class to Class Intercultural Telecollaboration
Models – e.g. Cultura

12. Recent years: “Intercultural Learning in the wild” (Thorne , 2010)
• Connecting learners to others
outside the classroom
• Use of 2.0 technologies and
development of electronic
literacies (“Telecollaboration 2.0”
– Guth & Helm, 2010)
• Thorne et al. (2009): connecting
learners with online fan
communities and using Web 2.0
technologies to remix and create
new artistic creations...
• Hanna and de Nooy (2009):
Learners use their FL and ICC
skills through participating in
online public discussion forums of
French newspapers…
• Competing(?) trend:
• Integration of telecollaboration
into formal learning
• Issues of:
– Awarding student credit
– Recognition of teachers´
extra work
– Reliability of partnerships
• Examples of work in this area:
• O’Dowd (2013)
• Dooly (2015) – TC descriptors
• Hauck and Mckinnon (2015) –
accreditation through badges

13. The Current State of Telecollaboration in FL education
• Significant number of financed
European projects:
• Moderating Intercultural
Collaboration and Language
Learning (Dooly, 2008)
• Integrating Telecollaborative
Networks in Higher Education
(O’Dowd, 2013)
• Telecollaboration for Intercultural
Language Acquisition (TILA)
(Jauregi, 2015).
• Wide range of publications:
• Dooly. M. (2008). Telecollaborative
language learning: A guidebook to
moderating intercultural collaboration
online.
• Guth, S., & Helm, F. (2010).
Telecollaboration 2.0: Language,
literacies and intercultural learning in
the 21st Century.
• O’Dowd, R. & Lewis, T. (2015). Online
Intercultural Exchange: Policy,
Pedagogy, Practice.
Recognition in different areas of FL education literature:
Corbett, J. (2010). Intercultural language activities.
Liddicoat, D. and Scarino, A. (2013). Intercultural Language Teaching and
Learning.
Mehisto, P., Frigols, M. J., and Marsh, D. (2008). Uncovering CLIL: Content and
Language Integrated Learning in Bilingual and Multilingual Education.

14. What are the main criticisms of Telecollaboration?
“Interaction [in TC] is restricted
to communcation with other
learners… a situation which is
limiting for advanced learners
who need practice in venturing
beyond the classroom.”
“… the institutionalisation of virtual exchange
institutionalises a two-tier system of mobility: one for
the elite few and another for the 80-90 % who cannot
afford it.” (p.166)
“The tasks involved
students in
exchanges across
cultures…but the
intercultural learning
was supposed to
happen as an
automatic result of
communication or
engagement with
others.”

15. We now have a Hub for Telecollaborative Exchange in University Classrooms:
www.UNICollaboration.eu

16. We now have a biannual international conference on Telecollaboration in
University Education: Next up -
April 2016, Trinity College, Dublin
http://www.tcd.ie/slscs/telecollaboration2016/index.php

17. What has research told us about Telecollaborative
Learning in university education?
• Great potential for awareness raising of cultural differences in
communicative practices – different genres, pragmatic competence etc.
Learners consider their partners to be ‘people who matter’ (Belz and
Kinginger, 2002, 2003).
• However! “…exposure and awareness of difference seem to reinforce,
rather than bridge, feelings of difference” (Kern, 2000: 256). – Hence high
level of interest in task design.
• In order to contribute to students’ linguistic and intercultural development,
the key is to combine online interaction with either reflective reviews of
online interactions (e.g. ‘la salle de rétrospection’ Kern, 2014 ) or through
pedagogic interventions by teachers (Cunningham & Vyatkina, 2012)
• The skills of online interaction do not come naturally– e.g. “Teaching
Comments” (Ware, 2014) , “intercultural questioning” (Belz, 2004).

18. The importance of developing the skills of Online Intercultural
Communication
• A German student writes this opening message to her new partner in Ireland:
• Hello, how are you? I study English and history and I want to become a teacher. This
term we do some cultural studies concerning Ireland and I very interested in it because
I actuallly do not know much about it.
• Now I would like to ask you some questions.
Do you live in Northern or in Southern Ireland? How many people live in your town? Are
you a Catholic or a Protestant? I have heard that regular churchgoing declines more
and more in your country-is it true?
• What are you doing in your free time? Do you often go to pubs? What do you think
about Germans? Irish people have the reputation of being very indirect and polite in
their speaking style. I have read that there was an enormous economic change in
Ireland.
• How have you or your parents experienced the social and economic change in the past
20 years?
• That's all for now. I am looking forward to hearing from you!

19. What do you think telecollaboration has to offer
university education in general (and not just FL
students)?

20. The value of Telecollaboration for University Education?
1. Provide international learning experiences for the non-mobile:
Aim for student mobility in the EU?
In 2020, at least 20% to have had a study or training period abroad.
The current rate of mobility in Europe?
4% -5%
European Commission Report: “European Higher Education in the world”:
“…internationalisation should …ensure that the large majority of learners who are not
mobile… are nonetheless able to acquire the international skills required in a globalised
world (2013:6)”
Schultheis Moore & Simon (2015): “[Telecollaboration]… meets the need of higher
education institutions …to help their students recognize the value and viability of
worldviews different from their own.”

21. 2. Integrate digital skills as part of university
education:
Supporting growth and jobs: An agenda for the
modernisation of Europe’s higher education
systems (2011):
“The knowledge economy needs people with the
right mix of skills : transversal competences, e-skills
for the digital era, creativity and flexibility and a
solid understanding of their chosen field.”
However, is there any empirical data to prove the
development of digital competence through
telecollaboration?
Lewis & O’Dowd (2015): Systematic review of 54
empirical studies of Telecollaboration’s contribution
to learning objectives – only 3 touch on digital
competence development
The value of Telecollaboration for University Education?

22. But to what extent has Telecollaboration become
mainstreamed in University FL Education in Europe?
• What do you understand by
‘mainstreaming’?
• Widespread use beyond the immediate
CALL community?
• Academic recognition through ECTS
credits? Mention in European Diploma
Supplement?
• Explicit mention and recommendations
in University Policy Documentation?

23. The European Higher Education
Area in 2015: Bologna Process
Implementation Report-
European
Commission/EACEA/Eurydice
(2015)
“…higher education
institutions have an
increasing choice of
instruments or activities to
engage in the
internationalisation process
(e.g. joint programmes and
joint degrees,
campuses abroad, MOOCs).
Let’s look for Telecollaboration in some policy documents and reports

24. New Modes of Learning and
Teaching in Higher Education -
High Level Group on the
Modernisation of Higher
Education (2014)
Developing educational
partnerships is an important
element of Europe’s strategy
for cooperation
with other parts of the
world. We are already seeing
very interesting
developments including the
Swiss Federal Institute of
Technology in Lausanne’s
MOOC initiatives for
francophone Africa…(p.21)

25. Trends 2015:
Learning and Teaching
in European
Universities: European
University Association
(2015)
“…Six emerging technologies…
likely to have an impact on higher
education in the next five years:
–– by 2014, MOOCs and tablet
computing;
–– by 2016, games and
gamification and learning analytics;
–– by 2018, 3D printing and
wearable technology (p. 73).

26. GREEN PAPER:
promoting the
learning mobility of
young people:
Commission of the
European
Communities (2009)
“Virtual
mobility, such as that supported
via Comenius eTwinning or via
social networking, can in
particular be valuable in opening
up school-age young people to
new contacts and cultures.”

27. How can Telecollaboration go beyond being merely a
respected yet isolated activity in university FL
education and…
…move on to become a more effective
educational tool which is more widely used and
integrated into university education?

28. • 1. Steps in the development of Telecollaborative classroom
practices
• 2. Steps in the development of Telecollaborative research
• 3. Steps in the integration of Telecollaboration across
university education

29. Steps in the development of Telecollaborative
classroom practices

30. Step 1: Move beyond bicultural/bilingual Exchange
• Lewis & O’Dowd (2015): Systematic review of 53 empirical
studies of how telecollaboration contributed to the goals of
foreign language learning in university education:
– 45 studies: bilingual/bicultural exchange
– 6 of the 53 studies: Lingua franca
– 2 of the 53: Multilingual exchanges

31. What types of partner-classes are teachers looking for in
UNICollaboration.eu?

32. Time to look towards Lingua Franca exchanges?
• Practical reasons - Not enough ‘natives’ to go around:
Kohn & Hoffstaedter (2015): “…[D]ue to a strong imbalance between
high and low-demand foreign languages, finding a partner with a
matching native/target language combination can be difficult, even
impossible.”
• Educational reasons – Getting learners ready for the real world:
Kramsch (2006): “It is no longer appropriate to give students a tourist-
like competence to exchange information with native speakers of
national languages within well-defined national cultures. They need a
much more sophisticated competence in the manipulation of symbolic
systems.”

33. Provide experience of learning how to interact with cultural difference per se:
Kern (2014): “…we need to think of computer-mediated exchanges as what
Pratt calls contact zones: ‘social spaces where cultures meet, clash, and
grapple with each other’ (1991, p. 34)”.
An example from a Spanish-German-Israeli Lingua Franca exchange during the
recent Gaza conflict:
A German student writes to his Israeli partners:
“ …. I can understand that the rockets are very scary and i'm very glad that we in
Germany don´t have war like you. And i think Israel isn't alone in charge for this
conflict. But can you understand the people in Gaza? Is it ok to keep these people
there like in prison? And why it isn't possible or why it´s so complicated to find a
solution for all the people in your region? And why the people especially the young
don't do something for the international understanding between these cultures? So
it´s time so sit together, talk and finish this war. And both parties must grant
facilities. Greetings…”

34. Step 2: Develop tasks which focus on democratic citizenship and genuine
intercultural dialogue
• Beware “the empty babble of the communicative classroom” (Pennycock, 1994)!
• Typical Telecollaborative tasks:
– This task allows the partners to prepare a powerpoint presentation about
places to go out at night in their hometown.
– This task aims to have students explore and reflect on stereotypes…
– Students have to post an image to the forum that exemplifies an aspect of
their daily routine.
– This presentation task allows the telecollaborative partners to speak about
their daily lives by producing a video or a commented slideshow.
• Kramsch and Ware (2005): “the illusion of commonality”:
• Spanish Student 1: “I will say that I liked the exchange very much and that Missouri
students looked like very nice people. I talked to them about my city and about
theirs and it was nice to see that there are little differences but not as much as I
thought.”
• Spanish Student 2: “To my mind, we aren't too different, both of us like sports,
music and spending time with our friends. We have different lifestyles but the
same goal: helping people with our jobs.”

35. Telecollaboration for democratic citizenship and intercultural
dialogue?
Leask (2015): “International interaction and collaboration…offer a way to
identify and address the issues associated with globalization and to
address inequalities …only if we develop in students the capacity to
critique the world they live in, see problems and issues from a range of
perspectives, and take action to address them.”
Council of Europe (2015): Competences for Democratic Citizenship and
Intercultural Dialogue:
Examples of descriptors:
– Expresses commitment to sustaining and safeguarding the human
rights of other people
– Expresses a willingness to seek out or take up opportunities to
engage, cooperate and interact with those who are perceived to
have cultural affiliations that differ from his/her own

36. What type of tasks lead to genuine collaboration and rich educational
outcomes?

37. Developing tasks that lead to genuine collaboration and interaction
• Challenge students to go beyond simply exchanging information and to
actually collaborate in the co-elaboration of projects or products:
• Allport (1958!!!): “The nub of the matter seems to be that contact must
reach below the surface in order to be effective in altering prejudice. Only
the type of contact that leads people to do things together is likely to
result in changed attitudes.”
• Guth and Robin (2015): “Tasks must be designed so that students depend
on one another to complete the task. For example, rather than having
students write a collaborative essay in which each individual writes his or
her own part and adds it to the whole, students could be asked to carry
out interviews locally, which are then shared with their peers and
interpreted through online discussion and edited jointly.”

38. Example 1: The Soliya Model – East-West Negotiations
• Soliya connects over 200
students from over 30
different universities in the US,
Europe and the predominantly
Arab and/or Muslim worlds.
• Students are placed into small
groups of 8-10 students and
guided through a 9-week,
English language dialogue
program by pairs of trained
facilitators.
http://www.soliya.net/

39. Example 2: Sharing Perspectives: A Content & Exchange Model
http://www.sharingperspectivesfoundation.com/
Provide academic content
Participating universities construct a shared
curriculum. This curriculum is presented through
video lectures by the participating educators.
Enable online discussion
After watching the video-lectures, sub-groups – of
one student per participating university – come
together in a web-based video-conference room,
where they discuss the lectures of that week.
These discussions are hosted by professionally
trained facilitators.
Facilitate collaborative research
Students are required to collaboratively design
and conduct survey research in their own
communities in order to learn about the broader
societal impact of the topic.

40. Example 3: Porto (2014): British/Argentinian Action research
project on the Malvinas/Falklands conflict

41. Steps in the development of Telecollaborative
research

42. Step 1: Expand sources of data used in Telecollaborative Studies
Liddicoat and Scarino (2013):
[Referring to a long range of telecollaborative studies:]
“ In each instance discussed above, interaction using a social technology has
not necessarily resulted in intercultural learning… The tasks involved students
in exchanges across cultures…but the intercultural learning was supposed to
happen as an automatic result of communication or engagement with
others.”
Really?
Chun (2015): “…it is essential for teachers to help students to go beyond
comprehending the surface meaning of words and sentences in order to
understand what their intercultural partners are writing.”
Müller-Hartmann (2012): “…[t]he role of the teacher is crucial in initiating,
developing and monitoring telecollaborative exchanges for language
learning” (p. 172).

43. • Then why do Liddicoat and Scarino (2013) feel it necessary to warn
that “…the technologies make available possibilities that need to be
developed as experiences of learning in parallel with the
interactions that technology facilitates?”
• One possible reason:
• Lewis & O’Dowd (2015): Systematic review of 54 empirical studies
of Telecollaboration’s contribution to FL objectives. What are the
main sources of research data?
– 41 studies: Online Transcript Analysis
– 21 studies: Student Questionnaires
– 18 studies: Student interviews
– 13 studies: Analysis of learner documents
– ? Studies: Analysis of classroom interaction

44. • Then why do Liddicoat and Scarino (2013) feel it necessary to warn
that “…the technologies make available possibilities that need to be
developed as experiences of learning in parallel with the
interactions that technology facilitates?”
• Lewis & O’Dowd (2015): Systematic review of 54 empirical
studies of how telecollaboration contributed to the goals of
foreign language learning in university education:
– 41 studies: Online Transcript Analysis
– 21 studies: Student Questionnaires
– 18 studies: Student interviews
– 13 studies: Analysis of learner documents
– 0 Studies: Analysis of classroom interaction

45. But why has this valuable source of evidence been neglected in telecollaborative
research studies?
• Researcher 1: “I think one important point is that through the work with
computers we already store so much data that we have the feeling that
we are able to present a multi-perspective in terms of data presentation.
But we would need more data in this regard to see what actually
transpires in the classroom.”
• Researcher 2: “I often take notes after classroom sessions but not in a
structured way. One would need to video- or at least audiotape the
classroom sessions which obviously is an additional workload...”
• Researcher 3: “Why is not done? It takes A GREAT DEAL of time and
work. I am currently working on CA transcriptions of 1 and half hours of
online conversations right now and it is, to the clock - 1 minute of
conversation requires 1 hour of transcription... SO much easier to nab
those online data ...but I agree, it needs to be combined with what is
happening in the classroom).”

46. Step 2: Time to take a Longitudinal Approach to Assessing the
Impact of Telecollaborative Contact?• Lewis & O’Dowd (2015): Lack of longitudinal studies:
• Telecollaborative research studies to date have not attempted to evaluate the impact of
virtual exchange on learners over a period any longer that one university semester.
• Not surprising?
• Guth, Helm and O’Dowd (2012):
– 54% of European university educators: exchanges lasted between one and three
months
– 26%: duration between three and six months.
• Belz (2004): “…such longitudinal data are difficult to collect in the tutored North
American context where language courses typically last for only one semester.”
• One possibility: Study long-term impact of different virtual exchanges on individual
students:

47. Steps in Telecollaborative integration

49. Step 1: Introducing non-FL teachers to Telecollaboration

50. What have been the reactions by non-FL teachers to
Telecollaboration?
“Time is already short in the classes anyway. I
just don’t know how I could add this activity as
well.”
“I really don’t think my subject area is suited to
this type of learning. I just can’t imagine what
the two groups would write about.”
“Telecollaboration …can hardly be implemented
in lectures, at least in my field. I do not mean to
say that this was not an interesting topic, but it
seemed more suitable to other fields.”
[Sample Feedback English Medium Instruction
training courses in Austria and Italy]
“Representatives of “hard, pure”disciplines …are often less open to recognizing
the cultural construction of knowledge than their colleagues in the “softer,
applied” disciplines…” (Leask, 2015)

51. Step 2: Combine the Flipped Classroom and Telecollaboration –
e.g. León - Tel Aviv – Malmo

52. Step 3: Combining MOOC’s and Telecollaboration
http://lrl.univ-bpclermont.fr/spip.php?article365

53. Combining MOOC’s and Telecollaboration (2)
• Princeton University, USA:
• "Making Government Work in
Hard Places“ by Jennifer Widner
• Traditional graduate-level course
with 19 enrolled students +
• Nine-week online course reached
more than 2,000 learners from
around the world.
• Online class: NovoEd MOOC
platform - teambuilding and
discussion between online and
on-campus students.
http://www.princeton.edu/main/news/archi
ve/S42/98/12A55/index.xml?
section=featured

54. Step 4: Combining Physical Mobility and
Telecollaboration
• Kinginger (2009): “A particularly
intriguing application… would be to
establish telecollaborative courses
linking students at home to their in-
country peers in the precise
locations where they will study
abroad and thereby to establish
contacts through prior,
institutionally sanctioned
interaction.”

55. Virtual International Partner (VIPs)
• Students planning to take part in an
Erasmus mobility are assigned a
Virtual International Partner in their
country of destination
• The students carry out various tasks
in L1 and L2 over a 2-month period
using email, skype, etc.
• At the end of the exchange, students
submit a portfolio providing evidence
of their work and reflections on their
learning
• Successful participants are awarded
extra points for Erasmus application
• Partnerships currently exist with
Ireland, UK and France

56. Summing Up
• Twenty years of development and growth of telecollaborative practice and
research in CALL
• The next step? Looking outward – making telecollaboration a tool for:
– The development of transversal skills and global citizenship in non-FL subjects
– The enhancement of university’s student mobility programmes
– An integral part of university’s online education courses (flipped classroom, MOOC’s etc.)
• How can we (CALL practitioners) contribute to this?
– Expand the goals and partner constellations of Telecollaborative practice
– Provide more robust evidence of the value of Telecollaborative Learning
– Adapt Telecollaborative Initiatives to the needs and practices of University education

57. Thank you for listening!
• Contact with comments and
questions:
robert.odowd@unileon.es
– Bibliography and draft paper from
today’s talk:
http://unileon.academia.edu/Robert
ODowd
– See this presentation again:
http://www.slideshare.net/dfmro
– Join UNICollaboration:
www.unicollaboration.eu