A brief and comprehensive overview of the origins and development of emergency management and response from 1937 until the present day.

1. The
evolution
of civil
protection
The
evolution
of civil
protection
David Alexander
University College London

2. Disaster Prevention and Management 11(3), 2002Disaster Prevention and Management 11(3), 2002

3. First to emerge was civil defence,
a system designed to protect the non-
combatent population against armed
aggression, above all by a foreign power.
First to emerge was civil defence,
a system designed to protect the non-
combatent population against armed
aggression, above all by a foreign power.

4. Oldest origins (1) The Red CrossOldest origins (1) The Red Cross
Jean-Henri Dunant
1828–1910
Jean-Henri Dunant
1828–1910
First Geneva
Convention, 1863

5. French Surgeon-General
Georges Saint-Paul
1870-1937
French Surgeon-General
Georges Saint-Paul
1870-1937
"Geneva zones"
safe havens for
non-combatants
1920-1935
"Geneva zones"
safe havens for
non-combatants
1920-1935
1931: "Association
des Lieux de Genève"
1931: "Association
des Lieux de Genève"
1937 Geneva:
International
Association for the
Protection of Civilian
Populations and Historic
Buildings in Wartime

6. Modern civil defence
was born at the
battle of Guernica
during the Spanish
Civil War (1937).

7. DEFINITION:
Civil defence means a centralised system
at the level of national government
designed to protect institutions and
their employees, and eventually the
non-combatent general population, against
the effects of a state of war or the
risk of fighting on the home front.
DEFINITION:
Civil defence means a centralised system
at the level of national government
designed to protect institutions and
their employees, and eventually the
non-combatent general population, against
the effects of a state of war or the
risk of fighting on the home front.

8. 1940s: the early development
of civil defence
1940s: the early development
of civil defence
• air raid precautions• air raid precautions
• civil guards (paramilitary forces)• civil guards (paramilitary forces)
• civilian management of war wounded.• civilian management of war wounded.

9. ARP: Air Raid PrecautionsARP: Air Raid Precautions

10. • air raid warning and evacuation• air raid warning and evacuation
• shelter management• shelter management
• managing the civilian public• managing the civilian public
• air raid urban search and rescue• air raid urban search and rescue
• making areas safe, putting out fires.• making areas safe, putting out fires.

11. "From Stettin in the Baltic Sea to
Trieste in the Adriatic an iron curtain
has fallen on the Continent [of Europe]."
Winston Churchill: Speech at
Westminster College, Fulton, Missouri,
5 March 1946.
"From Stettin in the Baltic Sea to
Trieste in the Adriatic an iron curtain
has fallen on the Continent [of Europe]."
Winston Churchill: Speech at
Westminster College, Fulton, Missouri,
5 March 1946.
The
Cold
War
The
Cold
War

12. With the arrival of the Cold War (i.e.,
from 1948 onwards) civil defence changed
its form. It began to focus on
preparations for a thermonuclear exchange.
With the arrival of the Cold War (i.e.,
from 1948 onwards) civil defence changed
its form. It began to focus on
preparations for a thermonuclear exchange.
• nuclear bunkers and under-
ground command centres
• nuclear bunkers and under-
ground command centres
• robust communications• robust communications
• secrecy• secrecy
• military command, and
paramilitary auxiliaries
• military command, and
paramilitary auxiliaries
• extraordinary powers
ready to be used.
• extraordinary powers
ready to be used.

13. The 1970s and 1980s were a period of
slow decline in civil defence, because:-
The 1970s and 1980s were a period of
slow decline in civil defence, because:-
• withdrawal from the Cold War mentality• withdrawal from the Cold War mentality
• increasing impacts of natural hazards• increasing impacts of natural hazards
• demonstrable futility of preparations
for nuclear war
• demonstrable futility of preparations
for nuclear war
• political détente on
the international stage
• political détente on
the international stage
• evident need
for new forms
of organisation
against disasters.
• evident need
for new forms
of organisation
against disasters.

14. The facts...?The facts...?

15. The 1970s and 1980sThe 1970s and 1980s
• political polarisation put a brake on
the development of civil protection
• political polarisation put a brake on
the development of civil protection
• further impediments were caused
by scandals and political corruption
• further impediments were caused
by scandals and political corruption
1989 - the fall of the Berlin Wall
The decline of authoritarianism.
1989 - the fall of the Berlin Wall
The decline of authoritarianism.

16. The 1990s: at last
civil protection emerges
The 1990s: at last
civil protection emerges
• it responds to a change in
strategic priorities - increased
emphasis on peacetime activities
• it responds to a change in
strategic priorities - increased
emphasis on peacetime activities
• with the end of the Cold War there are
fewer excuses to repress the population
• with the end of the Cold War there are
fewer excuses to repress the population
• also, the risk of coup d'etat is reduced• also, the risk of coup d'etat is reduced
• the age of the international disaster
begins, humanitarian intervention grows.
• the age of the international disaster
begins, humanitarian intervention grows.

17. June 1990: the United Nations
inaugurates the International Decade
for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR)
June 1990: the United Nations
inaugurates the International Decade
for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR)
• 140 nations establish
national IDNDR committees
• 140 nations establish
national IDNDR committees
• a few large international projects
are created (e.g., Radius, a project
for the reduction of urban seismic risk)
• a few large international projects
are created (e.g., Radius, a project
for the reduction of urban seismic risk)
• two large strategic conferences
are organised at the world level.
• two large strategic conferences
are organised at the world level.

18. • the degree of success was limited:
in ten years the IDNDR did not
halve the impact of disasters,
as specified among its objectives
• the degree of success was limited:
in ten years the IDNDR did not
halve the impact of disasters,
as specified among its objectives
• but the Decade did assist the
development of international collaboration
and the formulation of strategies
designed to combat natural disasters.
• but the Decade did assist the
development of international collaboration
and the formulation of strategies
designed to combat natural disasters.

19. New models of organisation of civil prot.New models of organisation of civil prot.
• increasing impact of
information technology
• increasing impact of
information technology
• greater global collaboration on DRR• greater global collaboration on DRR
• civilian disaster managers begin
to eclipse the military ones
• civilian disaster managers begin
to eclipse the military ones
• there is an urgent need to organise
civil protection at the local level
• there is an urgent need to organise
civil protection at the local level
• more disasters, more stimulus, better
protection and more demand for training.
• more disasters, more stimulus, better
protection and more demand for training.

20. Military Civilian
Armed Civil administration
forces Volunteers (civil society)
Emergency services
(army)
[residual role]
Civil defence Civil protection
Command and control Co-ordination
and co-operation
Chain of command Autonomy
Military Civilian
Armed Civil administration
forces Volunteers (civil society)
Emergency services
(army)
[residual role]
Civil defence Civil protection
Command and control Co-ordination
and co-operation
Chain of command Autonomy

21. Emergency management:
an evolutionary approach
Emergency management:
an evolutionary approach
Proxy Participatory
Civil defence...............Civil protectionCivil defence...............Civil protection
Command and control
Vertical chain
of command
Population excluded
Law and order
Secrecy
Collaboration
Task forces
Population consulted
and included
Problem solving
Openness

23. • importance varies from nation to nation• importance varies from nation to nation
• 'backbone' of CP system in some places• 'backbone' of CP system in some places
• age of spontaneous voluntarism is over• age of spontaneous voluntarism is over
• regulate it by law, give it govt. support• regulate it by law, give it govt. support
• must be trained and equipped.• must be trained and equipped.
VoluntarismVoluntarism

24. Civil protection is
finally differentiated
from civil defence
Civil protection is
finally differentiated
from civil defence
• it is organised at the local level,
with harmonisation provided by
higher levels of public administration
• it is organised at the local level,
with harmonisation provided by
higher levels of public administration
• it is more explicitly a service
for the general public
• it is more explicitly a service
for the general public
• it must tackle natural and man-made
hazards of a non-strategic nature.
• it must tackle natural and man-made
hazards of a non-strategic nature.

25. Armed aggression
on the part of states
Armed aggression
on the part of states
Civil defenceCivil defence
Natural disastersNatural disasters
Civil protectionCivil protection
Armed aggression
on the part of
groups of dissidents
Armed aggression
on the part of
groups of dissidents
"Homeland security"
(civil defence)
"Homeland security"
(civil defence)
"Generic" disasters"Generic" disasters
"Civil contingencies"
(resilience)
"Civil contingencies"
(resilience)

26. EVOLVING
STRATEGIC
SITUATION
EVOLVING
CLIMATE
CHANGE
LARGE
TECHNOLOGICAL
HAZARDS
MAJOR
GEOPHYSICAL
EVENTS
CIVIL DEFENCE
CIVIL PROTECTION
Instability
threats
Enhanced
natural hazards
Complex
hazards
Natural
hazards
'NA-TECH'
(HYBRID)
HAZARDS
Top-downTop-down
Bottom-upBottom-up

27. Organisation
• procedures
• event scenarios
• emergency plans
Intelligence
• collection
• interpretation
• warning
Training
• plan dissemination
• exercises
Stockpiling
• equipment
• supplies
Surveillance
• automatic (CCTV)
• manual (personnel)
Analysis
• laboratory
• forensic
Counter-terrorism activityCounter-terrorism activity
Involvement of civil protectionInvolvement of civil protection

28. The 2000s: growth of civil protection
accompanied by the return of civil defence
The 2000s: growth of civil protection
accompanied by the return of civil defence
• terrorism assumes a new form
that provokes a reorganisation
and return of civil defence
• terrorism assumes a new form
that provokes a reorganisation
and return of civil defence
• there is a constant
increase in the
professionality
of civil protection
operatives.
• there is a constant
increase in the
professionality
of civil protection
operatives.

29. Natural
disasters
Techno-
logical
disasters
Social
disasters
Inten-
tional
disasters
Natural AnthropogenicNatural Anthropogenic
Civil
defence
Civil contingencies
and Resilience
Civil
protection
"Homeland
Security"

30. ResilienceResilience
Synonyms and approximationsSynonyms and approximations

31. Civil contingencies
Resilience
management
The risk environment
Business
continuity
Civil
defence
Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)
Civil
protection
Humanitarian
Relief

32. Planning
• scenarios
• risk analysis
• emergency plans
• protocols
Organisation
• command structure
• task forces
• operations centres
• communications
Preparation
• education & training
• exercises
• plan dissemination
• revision of plans
Resources
• materials
• vehicles, equipment
• communications
• manpower

33. • is the field internationalising
sufficiently?
• is the field internationalising
sufficiently?
• is training sufficient?• is training sufficient?
• is emergency management a
profession, or should it be one?
• is emergency management a
profession, or should it be one?
• as a result of 9/11 have we regressed
to old models of organisation?.
• as a result of 9/11 have we regressed
to old models of organisation?.
Questions that have not yet
been properly answered (1):
Questions that have not yet
been properly answered (1):

34. • What should be our standards?• What should be our standards?
• Is civil protection
sufficiently democratic?
• Is civil protection
sufficiently democratic?
• Do we have the support of the public?• Do we have the support of the public?
• How much structural protection?• How much structural protection?
• Will civil protection adapt
itself quickly enough and
sufficiently to changes
in society and hazards?.
• Will civil protection adapt
itself quickly enough and
sufficiently to changes
in society and hazards?.
Questions that have not yet
been properly answered (2):
Questions that have not yet
been properly answered (2):

35. • Are there fashions in civil protection?• Are there fashions in civil protection?
• Can we afford all of this?• Can we afford all of this?
• Central control or devolution?• Central control or devolution?
• What does efficiency mean
in civil protection terms?
• What does efficiency mean
in civil protection terms?
• Will we be able to keep the
problem of disasters under control?.
• Will we be able to keep the
problem of disasters under control?.
Questions that have not yet
been properly answered (3):
Questions that have not yet
been properly answered (3):

36. Basic concepts:
hazard, vulnerability,
exposure, risk,
impact, resilience, etc.
Hazard
analysis
Hazard
analysis
Technical skills:
telecomminications
computer, GIS, etc.
Technical skills:
telecomminications
computer, GIS, etc.
Emergency
planning
Emergency
planning
Emergency
management
Emergency
management
Disaster
sociology and
psychology
Disaster
sociology and
psychology
Public information
management
Public information
management
Recovery and
reconstruction
planning
Recovery and
reconstruction
planning
Methods of
risk mitigation
Methods of
risk mitigation
Field
exercises
Field
exercises
Disaster and emergency
management training

37. Recognition and
an institutional
role for the
professional figure
Recognition and
an institutional
role for the
professional figure
Certification
of competence
Certification
of competence
Training
programmes
Training
programmes
Emerging
professional
figure
Emerging
professional
figure
Policies and
legislation
Policies and
legislation
ResearchResearch ExperienceExperience
Organi-
sation
Organi-
sation

38. There are various innovations in the system
of command of modern civil protection
There are various innovations in the system
of command of modern civil protection
• information technology has had the effect
of flattening the chain of command
• information technology has had the effect
of flattening the chain of command
• there is more emphasis on autonomous task
forces and less on command and control.
• there is more emphasis on autonomous task
forces and less on command and control.

39. • information sharing and collaboration
are being substituted for rigid
military and paramilitary hierarchies
• information sharing and collaboration
are being substituted for rigid
military and paramilitary hierarchies
• with the assistance of training courses,
emergency planning and management are
beginning to become a
fully-fledged profession.
• with the assistance of training courses,
emergency planning and management are
beginning to become a
fully-fledged profession.

40. From command and controlFrom command and control
to the incident command systemto the incident command system
ICS: a modular system for
directing emergency operations,
starting at the site of the incident
and organised from the bottom up.
ICS: a modular system for
directing emergency operations,
starting at the site of the incident
and organised from the bottom up.

41. The incident command system
- advantages
The incident command system
- advantages
• flexible and modular• flexible and modular
• with a base at the site• with a base at the site
• the emergency operations grow
organically in relation to the
forces available in the field
• the emergency operations grow
organically in relation to the
forces available in the field
• the incident commander constitutes
the task forces according to needs.
• the incident commander constitutes
the task forces according to needs.
• non-hierarchical• non-hierarchical

42. • based on 'horizontal' collaboration
instead of a 'vertical' chain of command
• based on 'horizontal' collaboration
instead of a 'vertical' chain of command
• increases information
sharing among task forces
• increases information
sharing among task forces
• divides command according to
span of control for ease of management
• divides command according to
span of control for ease of management
• easy to transfer command from one
person to another at the incident site.
• easy to transfer command from one
person to another at the incident site.
The incident command system
- advantages
The incident command system
- advantages

43. • it does not work well if personnel
are not well integrated into
the structure of command
• it does not work well if personnel
are not well integrated into
the structure of command
• it is difficult to direct 'from above'• it is difficult to direct 'from above'
• it is not idea for very large
emergencies that require
a more centralised command.
• it is not idea for very large
emergencies that require
a more centralised command.
The incident command system
- disadvantages
The incident command system
- disadvantages

44. P
E
S
T
O
R
P
E
S
T
O
R
Policies/Ethics
Strategies
Tactics
Operations
Results
Policies/Ethics
Strategies
Tactics
Operations
Results
General
public
General
public
Public administrators
and politicians
Public administrators
and politicians
Emergency and
technical services
Emergency and
technical services
Command
function
organisation
Command
function
organisation

45. Locus of
control
Locus of
collaboration
(support)
Tension of
opposites
Tension of
opposites
Command
function
principle
Support
function
principle
Spectrum of
alternatives
Spectrum of
alternatives

46. Locus of
control
Locus of
collaboration
(support)
Directed.......Ungovernable
Control.......Loss of control
Order..................Chaos
Initiative.......Obey orders
Collaboration.."Freelancing"
Autonomy.........Constraint

47. Civil protection must adapt itself with
great rapidity and flexibility to....
Civil protection must adapt itself with
great rapidity and flexibility to....
• continual changes in natural
and anthropogenic hazards
• continual changes in natural
and anthropogenic hazards
• continual changes in human
society and its vulnerability
• continual changes in human
society and its vulnerability
• emerging risks, such as
SARS and avian influenza.
• emerging risks, such as
SARS and avian influenza.

48. • needs, opportunities and
limitations created by the
political system in which it exists
• needs, opportunities and
limitations created by the
political system in which it exists
• changes in the demand for safety and
security manifested by the population,
public administrators and businesses.
• changes in the demand for safety and
security manifested by the population,
public administrators and businesses.
Civil protection must adapt itself with
great rapidity and flexibility to....
Civil protection must adapt itself with
great rapidity and flexibility to....

49. RESILIENCERESILIENCE
SocialSocial
TechnicalTechnical
PhysicalPhysical
PsychologicalPsychological
natural
social
technological
intentional
compound
cascading
CLIMATE CHANGE
ADAPTATION
DISASTER RISK
REDUCTION
SUSTAINABILITY
SCIENCE
OTHER HAZARDS
AND RISKS

50. CREATION
OF A NEW
CULTURE
OF CIVIL
PROTECTIONPOTENTIAL
TO BE
EXPLOITED
POTENTIAL
TO BE
EXPLOITED
DEMANDDEMAND
NEEDSNEEDS
SUPPLYSUPPLY

51. RISKS
daily: unemployment, poverty, disease, etc.
major disaster: floods, storms, quakes, etc.
emerging risks: pandemics, climate change
RISKS
daily: unemployment, poverty, disease, etc.
major disaster: floods, storms, quakes, etc.
emerging risks: pandemics, climate change
SUSTAINABILITY
disaster risk reduction
SUSTAINABILITY
disaster risk reduction
resource consumption
stewardship of the environment
economic activities
lifestyles and communities
SUSTAINABILITY
resource consumption
stewardship of the environment
economic activities
lifestyles and communities
SUSTAINABILITY

52. General resilienceGeneral resilience
Disaster resilienceDisaster resilience Disaster mitigationDisaster mitigation
Disaster responseDisaster response
The broader pictureThe broader picture
How it
should be

53. Now the challenge is to
democratise civil protection
so as to induce the public to
assume more responsibility for
its own safety and security.
Now the challenge is to
democratise civil protection
so as to induce the public to
assume more responsibility for
its own safety and security.
[X]