history of contemporary architecture - 18. The capitalist city, Megalopolis, Edge cities, The indigenous city, The colonial city.ppt

Class, race, and gender in the industrial city

• Up to the Industrial Revolution, urbanization rates in Western countries
were low
– In 1600, urban dwellers made up only 2 percent in Germany, France, and
England
– At the same time 13 percent of the Netherlands and Italy were urban
2
Arch. Dania Abdel-Aziz

• As millions of people migrated to cities urbanization rates skyrocketed in the last 200
years
– By 1800 England was 20 percent urban, and became the first urban society
around 1870
– By the 1890 census 60 percent of England’s people lived in cities
– The United States was 3 percent urban in 1800
• In 1900 it was 40 percent
• In 1920 it became an urban country with 51 percent
• Today, about 75 percent of the population lives in towns and cities
3

• Class
– Laissez-faire industrialism did little for the working classes
– There was distribution of such utilities as gas and water
– No living improvements beyond that of the seventeenth century were made
• In slum dwelling, direct sunlight was seldom available
• Open spaces were nonexistent
4

• Class
– In Liverpool, England, one-sixth of the people lived in “underground cellars”
– In Manchester, England, only one toilet for every 212 people was available
• Running water was usually available only on the ground floor
• Disease was pervasive, and mortality rates ran high
• In 1893 life expectancy of a male worker was 28 years, his country cousin
might live until age 52
– In 1880, the death rate in New York City was 26 per thousand, in rural areas it
was half that
• Infant mortality rate rose from 189 in 1850 to 240 in 1870
• Legislation correcting such ills came in the latter part of the century
6

• Class
– American industrial cities relied on a diverse labor force
– Many in the labor force came from Europe
– After the Civil War, many former slaves migrated north to find jobs
– In the South, former slaves moved into the industrializing cities
– In both South and North, African-Americans lived in segregated neighborhoods
• Forced by discrimination and often by law to keep their distance from white
neighborhoods
• For the most part services to these neighborhoods were minimal
7

• Race
– Some results of a recent study of black Richmond, Virginia, after the Civil War
• Residents used public rituals in streets and buildings to carve their own civic
representations, as well as challenge dominant white order
• Black militias marched through streets on holidays certified by the black
community as their own political calendar
8
Class, Race, and gender in the industrial city

• Race
– Some results of a recent study of black Richmond, Virginia, after the Civil War
• January 1, George Washington’s birthday, April 3 emancipation day, and July
4
• Whites did not take kindly to this as they watched blacks occupy Capital
Square, formerly reserved for white citizens
• Churches, schools, and beauty shops served as community centers and
public statements of an African-American identity
9
Class, Race, and gender in the industrial city

• Gender
– Industrialization led to creation of separate spheres
• Feminine sphere centered on the home and domestic duties
• Male spheres dominated the public spaces and duties
• Also created the need for mass consumption to keep factories running
profitably
• With men as producers, the duties of consumption fell to the women
10

• Gender
– Location logic of the urban land market meant retailers were located in the
central parts of the city
• Established what some have referred to as a feminized downtown
• Retailers created spaces considered appropriately “feminine”
• Interior spaces were well-arranged and orderly
• Exterior architectural design was heavily ornamented, and streets were
paved and well-lit
– Today, many of these places have been replaced by shopping malls
11
Class, Race, and Gender in the industrial city

The capitalist city
Arch. Dania Abdel-Aziz 13

The capitalist city
• Underlying changes occurring during the Renaissance and baroque periods
– Socioeconomic transformation reshaped Western Europe
– Drastic changes in class structure, economic systems, political allegiances,
cultural patterns, and human geographies
– Changes occurred from the mid-sixteenth to the mid-eighteenth century
– Introduction of commercialized and specialized agriculture
– Enclosure of individual land units
14

• Perhaps of greatest significance is how capitalist mind set introduced notion
of urban land as a source of income
– Proximity to city, center and most pedestrian traffic added economic value to land
– Areas close to river or harbor or along major thoroughfares in and out of city also
increased in land value
– Fundamental change in value led to gradual disintegration of medieval urban
pattern
15
The capitalist city

• The city center consisted of buildings devoted to business enterprises
– A downtown defined by economic activity emerged
– With industrialization would eventually expands and
subdivide into specialized districts
– A new upper class emerged
• Status based on accumulation of economic wealth
• Made money buying and selling urban land
• Used urban land as a basis for expressing their wealth
• Sought newer land on edge of city for their residential
enclaves
16
The capitalist city

• One of finest wealthy class enclaves was London’s Covent Garden Piazza
– Designed by Inigo Jones in the early 1630s
– Square was lined with townhouses edged in arcades
– Presence of nobility lent an aristocratic aura to the area
– Economic success of this enclave led to many imitations
– These upper-class squares were transplanted to America throughout the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
17
The capitalist city

Megalopolis

Megalopolis
• Movement away from the central city quickened in the last decades of the nineteenth
century
• Since World War II, new forms of transportation and communication have led to the
decentralization of many urban functions
• One metropolitan area blends into another, until supercities are created that stretch
for hundreds of miles
– Supercity of “Boswash” on the Eastern Seaboard of the United States that
stretches from Boston to Washington, D.C.
– Geographer Jean Gottmann coined the term megalopolis to describe it
• The term is now used worldwide to describe giant metropolitan regions
20

Megalopolis
• Characteristics of Megalopolis
– High population density covering hundreds of square miles
– Concentrations of numerous older cities
– Transportation links — freeways, railroads, air routes, and rapid transit
– Very high proportion of the nation’s wealth, commerce, and political power
21

Megalopolis
• Common problems found in megalopolis
– Congestion and overcrowding
– High land prices
– Financial insolvency and deteriorating inner cores
– Poor and disenfranchised population in contrast to the affluent in the suburbs
– Air and water pollution
– Political fragmentation caused by the many smaller towns and counties
22

Megalopolis
• Common problems found in megalopolis
– Congestion and overcrowding
– High land prices
– Financial insolvency and deteriorating inner cores
– Poor and disenfranchised population in contrast to the affluent in the suburbs
– Air and water pollution
– Political fragmentation caused by the many smaller towns and counties
Problems are difficult to solve because they are regionwide even crossing state borders
23

Edge cities

Edge cities
• Many so-called sleeping suburbs of the post-World War II era have been transformed
into urban centers with their own retail, financial, and entertainment districts
• Most Americans now live, work, play, worship, and study in this type of settlement
• Suburbs do not offer all the services or work places found in the edge city
• The commuter who used to live in a suburb and work in the inner city has been
replaced by the commuter who lives and works in an edge city
25

Edge cities
• Many scholars are wary of calling these new nodes cities because they do not
resemble our nineteenth century version of a city
• Edge cities contain all the functions of old downtowns, but are spread out and less
dense
• Interstate highways and truck transportation made it possible for industries to locate
outside the downtown
• Computer and communication technologies have allowed companies to move their
headquarters away from downtowns
27

Edge cities
• Edge cities present problems for today’s planners
– Traffic congestion and planning for mass transit
– Environmental concerns as spreading urban areas consume more land
– Is it possible to provide mass transit in a system with no center?
28

The urban landscapes of the developing world
• Most of the world’s population lives in the developing world
• Here we see the greatest potential for dramatic change in urban patterns
– High natural population growth
– Enormous rates of migration from rural to urban
29

The urban landscapes of the developing world
• Recent city growth has been staggering
– In 1950 they had only 4 of the 15 largest cities in the world
– Latest census shows they have approximately half of the largest 20 cities
– With this growth has come serious economic, political, and social problems
• It is difficult to generalize about cities of the developing world
30

The indigenous city

The indigenous city
• Developed without contact with Western colonial influences
• Many evolved long before there were cities in northern Europe
• Precolonial indigenous cities in the New World are restricted to Mexico,
Central America, and the Andean highlands
• Cities in Africa
– Cities associated with the Yoruba civilization in present-
day Nigeria
– Along the Nile River Valley
– Band of Islamic empires in the north, and small cities in
eastern highlands
32

The indigenous city
• Asia has the largest number of precolonial indigenous cities — from the
Middle East, across present-day Pakistan and India, to China and Japan
• Basic form of many cities is derived from the cosmomagical
• Many cities in Mexico, Central America, China, Japan, Egypt, and India
were laid out according to religious principles
33

Indigenous City: Jerusalem, Israel

The indigenous city
• Old, walled Jerusalem had Arab,
Armenian, Christian, and Greek
Quarters. In this Arab Quarter,
passageways are narrow with
stepped slopes. In earlier times
streets could be gated shut.
• Few openings and high windows
ensure privacy in this Muslim area.
Note the pipes and wires of the
modern era superimposed on the
ancient walls.
35

The indigenous city
• Beijing kept its basic cosmomagical landscape until the early twentieth century
– Deviations from the strict pattern arose to accommodate everyday functions of
business and culture
– Small alleyways and houses were built in irregular patterns not in accord with
sacred principles
– Until the abdication of the last emperor in 1912, the city was generally
maintained as the celestial capital
– In 1959, the Socialist government chose to build its symbolic center, Tiananmen
Square, on the site of the sacred axis mundi of Imperial Beijing
36

The indigenous city
• Indigenous cities of the Islamic world
– In the city center is the primary mosque, representing the religious core
– Near the mosque is the bazaar, or market place
– Homes of the elite, government or municipal buildings surround the core
– Moving from the core, areas of decreasing wealth and social status are
found
– The city is further divided in occupational districts much like that of the
medieval city — decreasing in prestige nearer the city edge
37

The indigenous city
– Ethnic groups dominate certain areas or formalized “quarters”
– Cities commonly reserved one quarter for Jews, another for Christians
– Have a very irregular Street plan, with narrow, winding streets
– Uneven building pattern, and few open spaces
– Residences are usually humble, in keeping with religious dictates
38

The indigenous city
– Housing arrangements often structured around segregation of the sexes
– Dictated by religion
– Two sectors organized around separate courtyards
– Female half more private, therefore at rear of house
– More public male half near entrance
– When men are gone, whole house become women’s domain
39

The colonial city

The colonial city
• Administrative, commercial, and often military outpost for an external power
• Many established to economically or militarily subdue local people
• When built near indigenous cities, Europeans would either weld their city onto the
existing settlement or, in a few extreme cases, build a whole new city
– Seen as guardians of the home
– Considered more moral and spiritual than men
– Imperative women should move to colonies to civilize and bring order to
“backward” lands
– In South Africa, for example, women could fill their patriotic and feminine duties
– Bring visual evidence of women enlightening those who needed it
42

Colonial City: Salvador, Brazil

• Salvador, established by the
Portuguese in 1549 to deter French and
Dutch encroachment, was Brazil’s
capital until 1763. The city grew as a
center of sugar production, trade, and
religion. Eventually, the original core,
with its narrow, winding streets and
slave market on the acropolis became
linked with port functions on the shore
below.
44

• European architectural styles here date
from the 17th through the 20th century.
At the left of the Ciudad Alta is the
Palacio Rio Branco, now housing
tourism offices. At the right of the
Ciudad Baixa is one of Salvador’s
dozens of Roman Catholic churches.
45

The colonial city
• Overseas emigration would provide an alternative source of scarce
work opportunities for women
• Between 1862 and 1914, more than 20,000 women emigrated to
British colonies
• Presence of women in the colonies was fraught with difficulties
– It was thought women needed protection from physical danger
– Dangers were considered more threatening than those in London because they
were “foreign”
– Specific spaces were set up to keep them from direct contact with foreign danger
• Lived in the newly built colonial cities
• Hill stations — fairly small residential compounds in the hills of India
46

The colonial city
• Separating women from native peoples did not work
– They could not civilize from a distance
– Indian servants often lived within or close to British
– Indian soldiers were stationed nearby
– Women performed missionary and benevolent work in the Indian city
– Indian servants, cooks, and gardeners were present in hill stations
– Housing designed in an open fashion to let in cool breezes; also allowed native
people to view private parts of the house
47

The colonial city
• Separating women from native peoples did not work
– They could not civilize from a distance
– Indian servants often lived within or close to British
– Indian soldiers were stationed nearby
– Women performed missionary and benevolent work in the Indian city
– Indian servants, cooks, and gardeners were present in hill stations
– Housing designed in an open fashion to let in cool breezes; also allowed native
people to view private parts of the house
48

The emerging city
• With the end of colonialism and movement toward
political and economic independence, developing
countries entered a period of rapid change
• Cities have often been a focal point of this change
– Millions have migrated to cities in search of a better life
– Economic activities have often changed their orientation
from external to local markets
– Cities have been centers of political and social unrest

The emerging city
• Because the emerging city model is a fluid one, results
cannot be predicted accurately
• Some think cities in developing countries will undergo
the same changes found in industrializing cities of the
nineteenth century

The emerging city
• William Hance has written on the differences between
today's emerging cities and those of the past
– Often 25 percent of the urban labor force is without work
– In the 1800s, people could migrate to the New World to
find land and jobs
– Emerging cities have weaker ties with their hinterlands
than did European cities
– Local rural areas excluded from development that could
offer employment
– It will be difficult to develop rural employment as long as
economic activities continue to cluster around cities

Emerging City Homeless:
Bombay, India

Bombay, India
• This woman is one of
Bombay’s homeless
millions. About 75% of
Bombay’s almost 13
million residents live in
one-room tenements,
15% in squatter shacks,
and 2% in the streets.
• Family abandonment
for a variety of reasons
such as failure to pay a

Bombay, India
a promised dowry,
death of a husband, or
divorce, forces many
women into a life of
prostitution or begging
to survive.
• Most of Bombay’s
homeless are migrants
from the countryside
and many are low caste
and scheduled caste
(untouchable).

The emerging city
• Alejandro Portes argues large internal migration from
rural to city can be traced back to colonial times
– In colonial Latin America, the city was essentially home to
Spanish elite
– When preconquest farm patterns were disrupted, peasants
came to the city
– These migrants usually lived on the margins of the city
– They were completely disenfranchised, because only
landowners had the right to hold office
– Elite attitude was a mixture of tolerance and indifference
– This pattern continues today in emerging cities

The emerging city
• High numbers of migrants and widespread
unemployment lead to pressure for low-rent housing
– Most common folk solution is construction of illegal housing, or
squatter settlements
– In Linia, Peru, the barriadas house fully a quarter of the urban
population
– In Caracas, Venezuela, it is about 35 percent
– Similar figures are found in emerging cities in Africa and Asia

The emerging city
• The evolution of squatter settlements
– Usually begin as collections of crude shacks constructed
from scrap materials
– Gradually become more elaborate and permanent
– Paths and walkways link houses, vegetable gardens
spring up
– Often water and electricity are boot-legged in so a
common tap or outlet serves a number of houses
– Later economic activities such as handicrafts or small-
scale artisan activities develop

The emerging city
• Various treatment of squatter settlements by city
governments
– Some bulldoze them down periodically to discourage
migration to the city
– Some turn their backs, viewing them as a satisfactory
solution to the problem of low-cost urban housing
• Squatter settlements are an important part of the
emerging city landscape
– Occupy vacant land on the outskirts and in the city center
– Downtown parks often covered by squatters’ houses
– Most often spread over formerly unwanted land, such as
steep slopes and river banks

Emerging City Squatter Settlement:
Jakarta, Indonesia

Jakarta, Indonesia
• Emerging cities are
characterized by squatter
settlements. Developed as
Batavia by the Dutch at
Kota, a swampy coastal
area, Jakarta is now a
rapidly growing capital city of
more than 8 million. These
stilt-houses are in the heart
of old Batavia along the fetid,
tidal Kali Besar (Big Canal)
constructed in the nineteenth
century.

Jakarta, Indonesia
• Jakarta is perceived by poor,
rural people as a wealthy
city, full of opportunities to
get rich.
• Almost half of the city’s
population was born
elsewhere and millions
reside in shanties like these.
• Along with other emerging
cities, rural to urban
migration accounts for a
significant portion of urban
growth.

The emerging city
• Outskirts of cities is often where new economic activities
are located
– Landscape of factories and warehouses is common
– When money is available, large high-rise apartments are
built for workers
– Middle-class suburbs may also grow up because of jobs
and “push” forces driving affluent out of the city center
– Traffic noise, air pollution, and congestion make the central
city less desirable than before

The emerging city
• Large central-city dwellings are often subdivided into
smaller apartments for lower-income families
– Where one middle-class family lived, six or seven families may
be housed
– Whether this structural change will lead to the ghetto pattern of
North American cities remains to be seen

The emerging city
• It is important to remember emerging cities may not
follow the pattern of industrial cities of the 1800s
• Emerging cities will not undergo the same transportation
system evolution
• They may evolve directly from foot and cart traffic to
autos and trucks
• A totally unique urban landscape may emerge

Culture regions
• Urban Culture Region
• Origin and Diffusion of the City
• Evolution of Urban Landscapes
• The Ecology of Urban Location
• Cultural Integration in Urban Geography

Site and situation
• Site — refers to local setting of a city, its longitude and
latitude coordinates
• Situation — the regional setting
• Example of San Francisco
– Originally site of Mexican settlement on a shallow cove or
inland shore of a peninsula
– Importance of its situation was that it drew on water traffic
coming across the bay from other settlements
– Characteristics of the site changed when the small cove
was filled to create flatland for warehouses and extending
wharves into deeper bay waters

Site and situation
• Example of San Francisco
– Filled in cove is now heart of the central business district
– The situation has changed as patterns of trade and
transportation technology have evolved
– The gold rush changed the importance of its geographical
situation by creating a demand for supplies for settlements, and
mines and miners in the gold country
– In the last decade, Oakland improved its situation to
accommodate containerized cargo ships by filling in large tracts
of shallow baylands
– San Francisco has since declined as a port city losing situation
advantage
• Depending on the function of a city, certain attributes of the physical
environment have been important in the decision of where to locate
cities

Defensive sites
• A location where a city can be easily defended
• There are many defensive sites for cities
– River-meander site-city located inside a loop where stream turns
back on itself
• Leaves only a narrow neck of land unprotected by
water
• Examples of Bern, Switzerland, and New Orleans

Defensive Site: Toledo Spain
• Acropolis and meander on
the Tagus River made this a
perfect defensive site for a
fortified Roman settlement
called Toletum. It was a
capital for the Visigoths and
the Moors prior to becoming
a Spanish one. The skyline
is dominated by the 13th
century Alcazar (fort),
destroyed and rebuilt many
times, and the Gothic
cathedral begun in 1227.

Defensive Site: Toledo Spain
• In 1227 Toledo was the
most important Jewish
town in Spain and a
major cultural and
intellectual center.
While the Jews were
expelled from Spain in
1492, the city retains
their architectural
heritage along with that
of the Islamic Moors,
Christians and other
occupants.

Defensive sites
– More advantageous was the river-island site
• Often combined a natural moat made when a stream was
split in two
• Montreal is situated on a large island surrounded by the
St. Lawrence River and other water channels
• Islands lying off seashores or in lakes
• Mexico City began as an Indian settlement on a lake
island
• Venice a classic example of a city built on an offshore
island
• New York City began as a Dutch trading outpost on
Manhattan Island

Defensive sites
– Peninsular sites were almost as advantageous as island sites
• Offered natural water defenses on all but one side
• Boston founded on a peninsula had a wooden
palisade wall across the neck of the peninsula

Defensive sites
– Danger of sea attack prompted sheltered-harbor urban sites
• High points were used where a city developed around a
fortification, and then spilled out over the surrounding
lowland

Trade-route sites
• Defense was not always a primary consideration
• Most common types of trade-route sites —bridge-point
and river-ford sites
– Where streams were narrow and shallow with firm banks
– Occasionally cities even reflect these sites in their names
• Confluence sites are common—point where two
navigable streams flow together

Trade-route sites
• Head-of-navigation sites — where water routes begin —
are even more common
– Goods must be transshipped at such points
– Examples
• Minneapolis-St. Paul, at the falls of the Mississippi River
• Louisville, Kentucky, is at the rapids of the Ohio River
• Portage sites are very similar — goods are portaged
from one river to another
• Many nonenvironmental factors can influence the choice
of a site
• Useful to distinguish between the specific urban site and
the general location, or spatial distribution

Walter Christaller’s
central-place theory
• Series of models designed to explain spatial distribution
of tertiary urban centers
• Terms
– Threshold — size of population required to make provision of the
service economically feasible
– Range -- average maximum distance people will travel to
purchase a good or service
– Hinterlands — large tributary trade areas associated with central
places that offer many services

• Crucial to his theory is the fact that different goods and
services vary both in threshold and range
– Larger number of people required to support a hospital,
university, or department store than a gasoline station, post
office, or grocery store
– People are willing to travel farther to consult a heart specialist,
record a land title, or purchase a car than to buy a loaf of bread
or mail a letter

• Because range of central goods and services varies,
tertiary centers are arranged in an orderly hierarchy
– At the top are regional metropolises that offer all services
associated with central places, and that have large
hinterlands
– At the bottom are small market villages and roadside
hamlets that may contain nothing more than a post office,
service station, or cafe
– Between the two extremes are central places of various
degrees of importance
– Each high-ranked central place offers all goods and
services of next lower ranked place, plus at least one or
two more

• One regional metropolis may contain thousands of
smaller central places in its hinterland
• Christaller tried to measure the influence of three forces
in determining spacing and distribution of tertiary centers

• He created models — he first measured influence of
market and range of goods on the spacing of cities
– To simplify model he made assumptions
• Terrain, soils, and other environmental factors were
uniform
• Transportation was universally available
• All regions were supplied with goods and services from
the minimum number of central places
– The shape of the model was circular, with the city at the
center
– When central places of the same rank were nearby, the
circle became a hexagon

• In his second model he no longer assumed transportation was
universally and equally available in the hinterland
– Assumed as many demands for transport as possible would be
met with minimum expenditure for construction and maintenance
of transportation facilities
– any high-ranking places would then be on straight-line routes
between important central places
– The transportation factor causes a rather different pattern of
central places
– Direct routes between adjacent regional metropolises do not
pass through central places of the next lowest rank
– Resulted in second-rank place to be “pulled” from the points of
the hexagonal market area to midpoints on the straight-line
routes

• He thought market factors would be the greater force in
rural countries
• He also thought transportation would be stronger in
densely settled industrialized countries with more central
places and more demand for long-distance
transportation

• His third model measured the effect of political borders
on the distribution of central places
– Political boundaries within an independent country would
tend to follow hexagonal market-area limits of each
political central place
– Borders tend to separate people and retard movement of
goods and services
– Central places in border regions lose rank and size
because market areas are politically cut in two
– Important central places are pushed away from borders,
which distorts the hexagonal pattern

• Many other factors affect the spatial distribution of
central places
• Assumptions must be made to construct a theoretical
model that integrates different components of culture

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