ENGLISH GRAMMAR
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nguyen Van Do

LANGUAGELANGUAGE
Phonology GrammarPhonology Grammar
MorphologyMorphology
Phonology (from thePhonology (from the GreekGreek:: φωνήφωνή,, phōnēphōnē,,
"voice, sound" and λόγος,"voice, sound" and λόγος, lógoslógos, "word,, "word,
speech, subject of discussion") is thespeech, subject of discussion") is the
systematic use of sound to encodesystematic use of sound to encode
meaning in any spokenmeaning in any spoken human languagehuman language,,
or the field of linguistics studying this use.or the field of linguistics studying this use.

• MorphologyMorphology is the identification, analysis andis the identification, analysis and
description of structure of words (words as unitsdescription of structure of words (words as units
in thein the lexiconlexicon are the subject matter ofare the subject matter of lexicologylexicology).).
While words are generally accepted as being (withWhile words are generally accepted as being (with
cliticsclitics) the smallest units of) the smallest units of syntaxsyntax, it is clear that, it is clear that
in most (if not all) languages, words can be relatedin most (if not all) languages, words can be related
to other words by rules. For example,to other words by rules. For example, EnglishEnglish
speakers recognize that the wordsspeakers recognize that the words dogdog,, dogsdogs, and, and dogdog
catchercatcher are closely related. English speakersare closely related. English speakers
recognize these relations from their tacitrecognize these relations from their tacit
knowledge of the rules of word formation inknowledge of the rules of word formation in
English. They infer intuitively thatEnglish. They infer intuitively that dogdog is tois to dogsdogs asas
catcat is tois to catscats; similarly,; similarly, dogdog is tois to dog catcherdog catcher asas dishdish is tois to
dishwasherdishwasher..

• The rules understood by the speaker reflectThe rules understood by the speaker reflect
specific patterns (or regularities = tính quy t c) inắspecific patterns (or regularities = tính quy t c) inắ
the way words are formed from smaller units andthe way words are formed from smaller units and
how those smaller units interact in speech. In thishow those smaller units interact in speech. In this
way,way, morphology is the branch ofmorphology is the branch of
linguistics that studies patterns of wordlinguistics that studies patterns of word
formation within and across languages,formation within and across languages,
and attempts to formulate rules thatand attempts to formulate rules that
model the knowledge of the speakers ofmodel the knowledge of the speakers of
those languages.those languages.

WHAT IS GRAMMAR?WHAT IS GRAMMAR?
- The science which treats of theThe science which treats of the principlesprinciples ofof
language; the study oflanguage; the study of formsforms of speech, andof speech, and
theirtheir relationsrelations to one another; the artto one another; the art
concerned with the right use and application ofconcerned with the right use and application of
the rules of a language, in speaking or writing.the rules of a language, in speaking or writing.
- The art of speaking or writing with correctnessThe art of speaking or writing with correctness
or according to established usage; speechor according to established usage; speech
considered with regard to the rules of aconsidered with regard to the rules of a
grammar.grammar.
- A treatise (luận thuyết) on the principles ofA treatise (luận thuyết) on the principles of
language; a book containing the principles andlanguage; a book containing the principles and
rules for correctnessrules for correctness in speaking or writing.in speaking or writing.

ENGLISHENGLISH GRAMMARGRAMMAR
I. PART OF SPEECHI. PART OF SPEECH
Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, pronouns,Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, pronouns,
Demonstratives, Conjunctions, Prepositions,Demonstratives, Conjunctions, Prepositions,
Articles, InterjectionsArticles, Interjections
II. GRAMATICAL UNITSII. GRAMATICAL UNITS
Sentences, Clauses, Phrases, Words,Sentences, Clauses, Phrases, Words,
Morphemes (morph, allomorph, text, inter-text)Morphemes (morph, allomorph, text, inter-text)
III. GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIESIII. GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES
Tenses, Aspects, Voices, Numbers,Tenses, Aspects, Voices, Numbers,
Genders, Cases, Persons, MoodsGenders, Cases, Persons, Moods

ELEMENTS OFELEMENTS OF
GRAMMARGRAMMAR
 Parts of a sentenceParts of a sentence
- SubjectSubject andand PredicatePredicate::
JohnJohn carefully searched the roomcarefully searched the room [1][1]
The girlThe girl is now a student at a large universityis now a student at a large university [2][2]
His brother grew happier graduallyHis brother grew happier gradually [3] (p. 10)[3] (p. 10)
* The* The subjectsubject has a close general relation to ‘whathas a close general relation to ‘what
is being discussed’ , the ‘is being discussed’ , the ‘themetheme’ of the sentence;’ of the sentence;
with the normal implication that something newwith the normal implication that something new
(the(the predicatepredicate) is being said about a ‘subject’.) is being said about a ‘subject’.

- The subject determinesThe subject determines concordconcord (p. 11); It(p. 11); It
changes its position as we go fromchanges its position as we go from
statement to question (ex. P. 11)statement to question (ex. P. 11)
 Operator, auxiliary, and predicationOperator, auxiliary, and predication
- Auxiliary as Operator (as in the followingAuxiliary as Operator (as in the following
sentence) from what we may call thesentence) from what we may call the
predicationpredication
 Range of operatorsRange of operators
((operator = hoạt tố; predication = vị tố/vị tốoperator = hoạt tố; predication = vị tố/vị tố
hóahóa))

sentencesentence
SubjectSubject predicatepredicate
auxiliaryauxiliary predicationpredication
asas
operatoroperator
He hadHe had given the girl an applegiven the girl an apple
Had he given the girl an apple?Had he given the girl an apple?
- Range of operatorsRange of operators
- Several auxiliaries (should, do/did, be, have) (p.12)Several auxiliaries (should, do/did, be, have) (p.12)

SENTENCE ELEMENTSSENTENCE ELEMENTS
(p12)(p12)
► SUBJECT, VERB, COMPLEMENT, OBJECT,SUBJECT, VERB, COMPLEMENT, OBJECT,
ADVERBIAL (S, V, C, O, A)ADVERBIAL (S, V, C, O, A)
John (S) carefully (A) searched (V) the roomJohn (S) carefully (A) searched (V) the room (O)(O) [1][1]
The girl (S) is (V) now (A) a student (C) at a largeThe girl (S) is (V) now (A) a student (C) at a large
university (A)university (A) [2][2]
His brother (S) grew (V) happier (C) graduallyHis brother (S) grew (V) happier (C) gradually (A) [3](A) [3]
It (S) rained (V) steadily (A) all dayIt (S) rained (V) steadily (A) all day (A) [4](A) [4]
He (S) had given (V) the girl (O) an apple (OHe (S) had given (V) the girl (O) an apple (O) [5]) [5]
They (S) made (V) him (O) the chairman (C) every yearThey (S) made (V) him (O) the chairman (C) every year
(A)(A) [6][6]

* We shall see in* We shall see in Element realization typesElement realization types
that considerable variety is possible inthat considerable variety is possible in
realizing each element of structure.realizing each element of structure.
S, O, and A can themselves readily have theS, O, and A can themselves readily have the
internal constituents of Sentences:internal constituents of Sentences:
She (S) saw (V) that [it (S) rained (V) all day (A)] (O)She (S) saw (V) that [it (S) rained (V) all day (A)] (O)
[7][7]
His brother (S) grew (V) happier (C) when [his friendHis brother (S) grew (V) happier (C) when [his friend
(S) arrived (V)] (A)(S) arrived (V)] (A) [8][8]
That [she (S) answered (v) the question (O) correctlyThat [she (S) answered (v) the question (O) correctly
(A)] (S) pleased (V) him (O) enormously (A)(A)] (S) pleased (V) him (O) enormously (A) [9][9]

COMPLEMENTS AND OBJECTSCOMPLEMENTS AND OBJECTS
direct object (Odirect object (Odd))
OBJECTOBJECT indirect (Oindirect (Oii))
COMPLEMENT subject complement (CCOMPLEMENT subject complement (Css))
object complement (Cobject complement (Coo))
John carefully searchJohn carefully search the roomthe room (O(Odd) [1]) [1]
He had givenHe had given the girlthe girl (O(Oii)) an applean apple (O(Odd) [5]) [5]
The girl is nowThe girl is now a studenta student (C(Css) at a large university [2]) at a large university [2]
His brother grewHis brother grew happierhappier (C(Css) gradually [3]) gradually [3]
They made himThey made him the chairmanthe chairman (C(Coo) every year [6]) every year [6]
He isHe is a chairmana chairman (C(Css))

CATEGORIES OF VERB (p14)CATEGORIES OF VERB (p14)
INTENSIVE, EXTENSIVE AND INTRANSITIVE verbsINTENSIVE, EXTENSIVE AND INTRANSITIVE verbs
Sentence [2] and [3] haveSentence [2] and [3] have Intensive verbsIntensive verbs and alland all
other sentences haveother sentences have Extensive verbsExtensive verbs. The latter are. The latter are
INTRANSITIVEINTRANSITIVE if as in:if as in: It rained steadily all day,It rained steadily all day, theythey
do not permit any of the four object and complementdo not permit any of the four object and complement
types so far distinguished. Extensive verbs aretypes so far distinguished. Extensive verbs are
otherwiseotherwise TRANSITIVETRANSITIVE..
((Intensive verbs = động từ kết chủ/tập trung; extensiveIntensive verbs = động từ kết chủ/tập trung; extensive
verbs = động từ kết động/phân tánverbs = động từ kết động/phân tán))

All transitive verbs take a direct object; some, likeAll transitive verbs take a direct object; some, like givegive
in [5], permit an indirect object, and these will bein [5], permit an indirect object, and these will be
distinguished asdistinguished as DITRANSITIVDITRANSITIV
tân). A few verbs, liketân). A few verbs, like makemake in [6], take an objectin [6], take an object
complement (complement (COMPLEX TRANSITIVECOMPLEX TRANSITIVE
phức tân). The rest arephức tân). The rest are MONOTRANSITIVEMONOTRANSITIVE
*The*The aspectual contrastaspectual contrast of the ‘progressive’ and ‘non-of the ‘progressive’ and ‘non-
progressive’:progressive’:
John carefully searched the roomJohn carefully searched the room [1][1]
or John was carefully searching the roomor John was carefully searching the room
But, it is impossible for [2] to be like the [1]But, it is impossible for [2] to be like the [1]
** The girl is now a student at a large universityThe girl is now a student at a large university [2][2]

INTENSIVE VERBINTENSIVE VERB
If the word or phrase following a verb is a noun, aIf the word or phrase following a verb is a noun, a
preposition or an adjective and it tells us somethingpreposition or an adjective and it tells us something
about the subject of the sentence, then that sentence'sabout the subject of the sentence, then that sentence's
verb is called "intensive":verb is called "intensive":
(a) Max became(a) Max became a doctora doctor. (noun). (noun)
=> "a doctor" tells us who Max is.=> "a doctor" tells us who Max is.
(b) The cat is(b) The cat is in the kitchenin the kitchen. (preposition). (preposition)
=> "in the kitchen" tells us where the cat is located.=> "in the kitchen" tells us where the cat is located.
(c) Sam seems(c) Sam seems happyhappy. (adjective). (adjective)
=> "happy" describes Sam's state of being.=> "happy" describes Sam's state of being.

Note, "intensive" means, to cover a fixed areaNote, "intensive" means, to cover a fixed area
(similar to agricultural term "intensive farming" i.e., to(similar to agricultural term "intensive farming" i.e., to
work the same, fix plot of land), whereas "extensive"work the same, fix plot of land), whereas "extensive"
means, to cover a wider area.means, to cover a wider area.
Intensive verbsIntensive verbs are concentrated to one, fixedare concentrated to one, fixed
structure. Words or phrases following an intensivestructure. Words or phrases following an intensive
verb function as subject complements; i.e., theyverb function as subject complements; i.e., they
complement the subject (they tell us about thecomplement the subject (they tell us about the
subject), they work with the subject, not the verb.subject), they work with the subject, not the verb.
Extensive verbsExtensive verbs are not concentrated to a fixedare not concentrated to a fixed
structure. Words or phrases following an extensivestructure. Words or phrases following an extensive
verb function as the verb's object; they work with theverb function as the verb's object; they work with the
verb, not the subject.verb, not the subject.

- All- All transitivetransitive verbs take a directverbs take a direct
object; some likeobject; some like givegive in [5], permitsin [5], permits
an indirect object, and these will bean indirect object, and these will be
distinguished asdistinguished as DITRANSITIVEDITRANSITIVE..
- A few verbs, like make in [6], take an objectA few verbs, like make in [6], take an object
complement and are referred to ascomplement and are referred to as
COMPLEXT TRANSITIVECOMPLEXT TRANSITIVE. The rest are. The rest are
MONOTRANSITIVEMONOTRANSITIVE. (p 14). (p 14)
((transitive v. = đt cập vật; intransitive v. = đttransitive v. = đt cập vật; intransitive v. = đt
bất cập vật; ditransitive v.= đt ngoại độngbất cập vật; ditransitive v.= đt ngoại động
song chuyển; complex tran.v. đt ~ phứcsong chuyển; complex tran.v. đt ~ phức
chuyển; monotransitive v. đt ~ đơn chuyểnchuyển; monotransitive v. đt ~ đơn chuyển))

 Transitive and Intransitive VerbsTransitive and Intransitive Verbs
 Depending on the type of object they take,Depending on the type of object they take,
verbsverbs may be transitive, intransitive, ormay be transitive, intransitive, or
linkinglinking..
 The meaning of aThe meaning of a transitive verbtransitive verb isis
incomplete without aincomplete without a direct objectdirect object, as in the, as in the
following examples:following examples:
 INCOMPLETEINCOMPLETE
– The shelfThe shelf holdsholds
 COMPLETECOMPLETE
– The shelfThe shelf holdsholds three books and a vase ofthree books and a vase of
flowers.flowers.
 INCOMPLETEINCOMPLETE
– The committeeThe committee namednamed
 COMPLETECOMPLETE
– The committeeThe committee namednamed a new chairperson.a new chairperson.

 INCOMPLETEINCOMPLETE
– The childThe child brokebroke
 COMPLETECOMPLETE
– The childThe child brokebroke the plate.the plate.
 AnAn intransitive verbintransitive verb, on the other hand,, on the other hand,
cannotcannot take a direct object:take a direct object:
– This plant has thrived on the south window sill.This plant has thrived on the south window sill.
 TheThe compound verbcompound verb "has thrived" is"has thrived" is
intransitive and takes no direct object in thisintransitive and takes no direct object in this
sentencesentence. The. The prepositional phraseprepositional phrase "on the"on the
south windowsill" acts as ansouth windowsill" acts as an adverbadverb
describing where the plant thrives.describing where the plant thrives.

– The sound of the choir carried through theThe sound of the choir carried through the
cathedral.cathedral.
 The verb "carried" is used intransitively inThe verb "carried" is used intransitively in
this sentence and takes no direct object. Thethis sentence and takes no direct object. The
prepositional phrase "through the cathedral"prepositional phrase "through the cathedral"
acts as an adverb describing where theacts as an adverb describing where the
sound carried.sound carried.
– The train from Montreal arrived four hours late.The train from Montreal arrived four hours late.
 The intransitive verb "arrived" takes noThe intransitive verb "arrived" takes no
direct object, and thedirect object, and the noun phrasenoun phrase "four"four
hours late" acts as an adverb describinghours late" acts as an adverb describing
when the train arrived.when the train arrived.

InIn grammargrammar, a, a ditransitive verbditransitive verb is ais a verbverb
which takes awhich takes a subjectsubject and twoand two objectsobjects..
According to certain linguisticsAccording to certain linguistics
considerations, these objects may be calledconsiderations, these objects may be called
directdirect andand indirectindirect, or, or primaryprimary andand
secondarysecondary. This is in contrast to. This is in contrast to
monotransitivemonotransitive verbsverbs, which take only one,, which take only one,
direct, object.direct, object.

 Some verbs are followed by two phrases, but theySome verbs are followed by two phrases, but they
have a different order and function from VD (verbhave a different order and function from VD (verb
requires direct object) verbs:requires direct object) verbs:
 (16) My grandpa calls [teenagers] [blithering idiots(16) My grandpa calls [teenagers] [blithering idiots
 In (16), we have two NPs after the verb, but noticeIn (16), we have two NPs after the verb, but notice
that the relationship between the two is not whatthat the relationship between the two is not what
we saw with ditransitive verbs. The first NP,we saw with ditransitive verbs. The first NP,
teenagersteenagers is not receivingis not receiving idiotsidiots. It's not an indirect. It's not an indirect
object at all. In fact, it's the direct object ofobject at all. In fact, it's the direct object of callscalls
(the thing that's being named). The second NP(the thing that's being named). The second NP
isn't receiving anything either. It's renaming theisn't receiving anything either. It's renaming the
direct object. If that sounds similar to what an NPdirect object. If that sounds similar to what an NP
after a linking verb does that's no accident.after a linking verb does that's no accident.

 This too is a complement, but since it refers to theThis too is a complement, but since it refers to the
object, we will, sensibly enough, call it an objectobject, we will, sensibly enough, call it an object
complement. An object complement renames orcomplement. An object complement renames or
defines a quality of the direct object. Like subjectdefines a quality of the direct object. Like subject
complements, object complements can also becomplements, object complements can also be
adjective phrases:adjective phrases:
 (17) Some linguists consider [Noam Chomsky](17) Some linguists consider [Noam Chomsky]
[mistaken].[mistaken].
 Just as linking verbs are a type of intransitive verbJust as linking verbs are a type of intransitive verb
with complex predication, these verbs are a formwith complex predication, these verbs are a form
of complex predication for transitive verbs. We willof complex predication for transitive verbs. We will
label such verbs VC (verb requires complement).label such verbs VC (verb requires complement).

AA monotransitive verbmonotransitive verb is ais a verbverb that takesthat takes
two arguments: atwo arguments: a subjectsubject and a singleand a single
direct objectdirect object. For example, the verbs. For example, the verbs buybuy,, bitebite,,
breakbreak, and, and eateat are monotransitive in English.are monotransitive in English.
Verbs are categorized in terms ofVerbs are categorized in terms of transitivitytransitivity (i.(i.
e. how many and which types ofe. how many and which types of syntacticsyntactic
argumentsarguments cooccurcooccur with),with),
the basic distinction being betweenthe basic distinction being between
transitive verbstransitive verbs (taking two or more arguments)(taking two or more arguments)
andand intransitive verbsintransitive verbs (taking one argument).(taking one argument).
The transitive category is further divided intoThe transitive category is further divided into
subclasses.subclasses.

The following examples showThe following examples show
monotransitive verbs in sentences (themonotransitive verbs in sentences (the
direct object is in boldface):direct object is in boldface):
Yesterday, IYesterday, I boughtbought a cata cat..
The catThe cat bitbit meme!!
HeHe brokebroke the toothpickthe toothpick..
The chefThe chef ateate his own watermelon souphis own watermelon soup ..

 Traditionally,Traditionally, transitivitytransitivity patterns are assigned topatterns are assigned to
the verb asthe verb as lexicallexical information, but recent researchinformation, but recent research
inin construction grammarconstruction grammar has argued that this ishas argued that this is
actually a wrong conception, since the same verbactually a wrong conception, since the same verb
very often appears in different contexts ofvery often appears in different contexts of
transitivitytransitivity. Consider:. Consider:
 The man bought his wife a ring.The man bought his wife a ring. ((ditransitiveditransitive))
 Stop me before I buy again.Stop me before I buy again. (intransitive;(intransitive;
antipassiveantipassive construction)construction)
 The cat bit him in the arm.The cat bit him in the arm. (complex transitive)(complex transitive)
 Can you bite me a piece of banana?Can you bite me a piece of banana? (ditransitive)(ditransitive)
 The vase broke.The vase broke. (intransitive;(intransitive; middle voicemiddle voice
construction)construction)

 The vase broke.The vase broke. (intransitive;(intransitive; middle voicemiddle voice
construction)construction)
 Can you break me some toothpicks for my modelCan you break me some toothpicks for my model
castle?castle? (ditransitive)(ditransitive)
 She broke the toothpick into tiny pieces.She broke the toothpick into tiny pieces. (complex(complex
transitive)transitive)
 Not now, I'm eating.Not now, I'm eating. (intransitive; antipassive(intransitive; antipassive
construction)construction)
 Thus, inThus, in grammatical construction theorygrammatical construction theory,,
monotransititivy is assigned to , which are schematicmonotransititivy is assigned to , which are schematic
types oftypes of grammatical constructiongrammatical construction, rather than to the, rather than to the
verb.verb.
 Transitivity is roughlyTransitivity is roughly synonymoussynonymous withwith
subcategorization.subcategorization.
 Retrieved fromRetrieved from
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotransitive_verb""http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotransitive_verb"

STATIVE AND DYNAMIC VERBS (p15)STATIVE AND DYNAMIC VERBS (p15)
Verbs in English can be classified into twoVerbs in English can be classified into two
categories:categories: stativestative verbs andverbs and dynamicdynamic verbs.verbs.
Dynamic verbsDynamic verbs (sometimes referred to as "action(sometimes referred to as "action
verbs") usually describe actions we can take, orverbs") usually describe actions we can take, or
things that happen;things that happen; stative verbsstative verbs usually refer to ausually refer to a
state or condition which is not changing or likely tostate or condition which is not changing or likely to
change. The difference is important, becausechange. The difference is important, because
stative verbs cannot normally be used in thestative verbs cannot normally be used in the
continuous (BE + ING) forms.continuous (BE + ING) forms.
((Stative verbs = động từ tĩnh trạng; Dynamic verbs =Stative verbs = động từ tĩnh trạng; Dynamic verbs =
động từ hành độngđộng từ hành động))

 There are many types ofThere are many types of dynamic verbsdynamic verbs,,
but most of them describe activities orbut most of them describe activities or
events which can begin and finish. Here areevents which can begin and finish. Here are
some examples:some examples:
 Play (activity)Play (activity)
 She plays tennis every Friday.She plays tennis every Friday.
She's playing tennis right now.She's playing tennis right now.
 Melt (process)Melt (process)
The snow melts every spring.The snow melts every spring.
The snow is melting right now.The snow is melting right now.

 Hit (momentary action)Hit (momentary action)
When one boxer hits another, brainWhen one boxer hits another, brain
damage can result. (This suggests onlydamage can result. (This suggests only
ONE punch.)ONE punch.)
When one boxer is hitting another,When one boxer is hitting another,
brain damage can result. (Thisbrain damage can result. (This
suggests MANY repeated punches.)suggests MANY repeated punches.)

Stative verbsStative verbs usually refer to a state orusually refer to a state or
condition which is quite static or unchanging.condition which is quite static or unchanging.
They can be divided into verbs ofThey can be divided into verbs of perceptionperception
or cognitionor cognition (which refer to things in the(which refer to things in the
mind), or verbs ofmind), or verbs of relationrelation (which describe(which describe
the relationships between things). Here arethe relationships between things). Here are
some examples:some examples:
 Hate (perception)Hate (perception)
I hate chocolate.I hate chocolate.
 Believe (perception)Believe (perception)
She believes in UFOs.She believes in UFOs.
 Contain (relation)Contain (relation)
The box contains 24 cans of soda.The box contains 24 cans of soda.
 Own (relation)Own (relation)
Yong owns three motorbikes.Yong owns three motorbikes.

 In English language there are verbs that areIn English language there are verbs that are
not normally used in the Continuous Tense,not normally used in the Continuous Tense,
because they describe rather state than anbecause they describe rather state than an
action. They are calledaction. They are called state verbstate verb ((stativestative
verbsverbs,, non-progressive verbsnon-progressive verbs).).
The verbs that can be used in the ContinuousThe verbs that can be used in the Continuous
Tense are calledTense are called action verbsaction verbs ((dynamicdynamic
verbsverbs).).
Some verbs can be bothSome verbs can be both statestate andand actionaction
verbsverbs depending on their meaning.depending on their meaning.

Here are some verbs that are notHere are some verbs that are not
normally used in the Continuous Tense.normally used in the Continuous Tense.
like, dislike; love, hatelike, dislike; love, hate
prefer, remember, forget,prefer, remember, forget,
believe,believe, mean, seem, understandmean, seem, understand
want,want, need, know, belong, ownneed, know, belong, own

 Here are some a few verbs that can beHere are some a few verbs that can be
bothboth statestate andand action verbsaction verbs
depending on their meaning.depending on their meaning.
 I think you made a mistake.I think you made a mistake.
think = believethink = believe
I am thinking about my mum now.I am thinking about my mum now.
think = mental processthink = mental process

 I have two cars.I have two cars.
have = possess, ownhave = possess, own
I am having my lunch now.I am having my lunch now.
have = eathave = eat
 I am seeing my friend tomorrow evening.I am seeing my friend tomorrow evening.
see = meeting withsee = meeting with
I see what you mean.I see what you mean.
See = understandSee = understand

Categories of Adverbial (p15)Categories of Adverbial (p15)
The girl isThe girl is nownow a studenta student at a large universityat a large university

The girl is a studentThe girl is a student at a large universityat a large university
The girl is a studentThe girl is a student
The girl isThe girl is nownow a studenta student
The girl isThe girl is at a large universityat a large university
but we cannot say *The girl isbut we cannot say *The girl is nownow
We may say thatWe may say that nownow andand at a largeat a large
universityuniversity are adverbials but belong toare adverbials but belong to
different classes (time & place) (p. 15)different classes (time & place) (p. 15)

 carefullycarefully in the following case can bein the following case can be
replaced by many others:replaced by many others:
carefullycarefully
slowlyslowly
John searched the roomJohn searched the room noisilynoisily
sternlysternly
without delaywithout delay
But if these same adverbials were inserted inBut if these same adverbials were inserted in
stative verb sentences, these sentences wouldstative verb sentences, these sentences would
become unacceptable (p. 15). Ex.become unacceptable (p. 15). Ex.
** The girl is now a student carefullyThe girl is now a student carefully

TYPES OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE (p.16)TYPES OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE (p.16)
- She is in London- She is in London (now) [1](now) [1]
- She is a student- She is a student (in London) (now) [2](in London) (now) [2]
- John heard the explosion- John heard the explosion (from his office)(from his office)
(when he was locking the door) [3](when he was locking the door) [3]
-- UniversitiesUniversities (gradually)(gradually) becamebecame
famousfamous (in Europe)(in Europe)
(during the Middle Ages) [4](during the Middle Ages) [4]

-- They ate the meatThey ate the meat (hungrily) (in their hut)(hungrily) (in their hut)
(that night) [5](that night) [5]
-- He offeredHe offered (her)(her) some chocolatessome chocolates
(politely) (outside the hall) [6](politely) (outside the hall) [6]
-- They elected him chairmanThey elected him chairman
(without argument) (in(without argument) (in
Washington) (this morning) [7]Washington) (this morning) [7]
-- The train had arrivedThe train had arrived (quietly)(quietly)
(at the station) (before(at the station) (before
We noticed it) [8]We noticed it) [8]

A place [[1]A place [[1]
CCss [2][2]
intensintens
Vstat ext & tras: OVstat ext & tras: Odd [3][3]
S intens: CS intens: Css [4] (A (A[4] (A (A
momo: Omomo: Odd [5] place)[5] place)
time)time)
trans di: (Otrans di: (O11) O) Odd [6] (A[6] (A
Vdyn complex: OVdyn complex: Odd CCoo [7] proc)[7] proc)
ext intransitive [8]ext intransitive [8]

ELEMENT REALIZATIONELEMENT REALIZATION
TYPESTYPES
((p. 16p. 16))
 Sentence elements can be realized by linguisticSentence elements can be realized by linguistic
structures of very different form.structures of very different form.
 The verb element is always aThe verb element is always a verb phraseverb phrase..
 The verb element may be ‘finite’ (showingThe verb element may be ‘finite’ (showing tense,tense,
mood, aspectmood, aspect,, andand voicevoice) or ‘non-finite’ (not showing) or ‘non-finite’ (not showing
tensetense oror moodmood but still capable of indicatingbut still capable of indicating aspectaspect
andand voicevoice).).
 Consider the three types ofConsider the three types of non-finite verb phrasenon-finite verb phrase
functioning as the V element in the italicizedfunctioning as the V element in the italicized non-non-
finite clausesfinite clauses::

Mary wantedMary wanted [[to beto be (v)(v) a studenta student (C(Css)) at thatat that
universityuniversity (A)] (O(A)] (Odd).).
[[CarefullyCarefully (A)(A) searchingsearching (V)(V) the roomthe room (O(Odd)] (A),)] (A),
John found a ringJohn found a ring
[[MadeMade (v)(v) the chairmanthe chairman (C(Coo)) every yearevery year (A)](A)]
(A),(A), he was very busyhe was very busy
non-finitenon-finite
clausesclauses::

 TheThe verb phraseverb phrase (VP) in English has a(VP) in English has a
noticeably different structure, since thenoticeably different structure, since the
information it carries aboutinformation it carries about mood, tense,mood, tense,
modality, aspectmodality, aspect, and, and voicevoice is quite differentis quite different
from the information carried by afrom the information carried by a nounnoun
phrasephrase. The verb phrase has two functional. The verb phrase has two functional
parts,parts, thethe auxiliaryauxiliary, a grammatical morpheme, a grammatical morpheme
carrying information about mood, tense,carrying information about mood, tense,
modality, and voice; andmodality, and voice; and thethe main verbmain verb, a, a
lexical morpheme carrying its lexicallexical morpheme carrying its lexical
information and, usually, an inflection.information and, usually, an inflection.

TheThe moodmood system in English is divided into foursystem in English is divided into four
subcategories.subcategories.

 Set phrasesSet phrases
 The subjunctive is used in a number of fixedThe subjunctive is used in a number of fixed
phrases, relics from an older form of the languagephrases, relics from an older form of the language
where it was much more common. Some could bewhere it was much more common. Some could be
misconstrued as the imperative mood. Commonmisconstrued as the imperative mood. Common
examples are:examples are:
 if need beif need be (nếu cần)(nếu cần)
 as it wereas it were (nếu có thể nói như vậy / cứ y như là vậy)(nếu có thể nói như vậy / cứ y như là vậy)
 if I were you; were I youif I were you; were I you (giá như tôi là bạn)(giá như tôi là bạn)
 be that as it maybe that as it may (cứ cho nó là như vậy)(cứ cho nó là như vậy)
 (God) bless you!(God) bless you! (Chúa phù hộ ngài)(Chúa phù hộ ngài)
 come Monday (Tuesday, etc.)come Monday (Tuesday, etc.) (khi thứ Hai đến)(khi thứ Hai đến)
 come what maycome what may (cho dù xảy ra điều gì)(cho dù xảy ra điều gì)
 far be it fromfar be it from (or(or forfor)) meme (còn lâu mới liên quan đến tôi)(còn lâu mới liên quan đến tôi)
 until death do us partuntil death do us part (cho đên khi cái chết chia lìa chúng ta)(cho đên khi cái chết chia lìa chúng ta)
 God save our gracious QueenGod save our gracious Queen,, God bless AmericaGod bless America,, God keep our landGod keep our land
glorious and freeglorious and free,, God rest ye merry gentlemenGod rest ye merry gentlemen, etc., etc.

 Heaven forfend/forbiddenHeaven forfend/forbidden (lạy trời đừng có chuyện đó)(lạy trời đừng có chuyện đó)
 so be itso be it (đành vậy thôi)(đành vậy thôi)
 suffice it to saysuffice it to say (đủ để nói rằng)(đủ để nói rằng)
 woe betidewoe betide (chớ có làm mà chết)(chớ có làm mà chết)
 peace be with youpeace be with you (sự thanh thản sẽ đến với bạn)(sự thanh thản sẽ đến với bạn)
 long live the kinglong live the king (Hoàng đế vạn tuế)(Hoàng đế vạn tuế)
 albeitalbeit (a synthesis of(a synthesis of all be itall be it, i.e., i.e. although it bealthough it be)) (mặc(mặc
dù, dẫu)dù, dẫu)
 truth be toldtruth be told (thật tình mà nói)(thật tình mà nói)
 rue the dayrue the day (sẽ có lúc phải hối tiếc)(sẽ có lúc phải hối tiếc)

 truth be toldtruth be told
 rue the dayrue the day
 would that it werewould that it were (giá mà mọi việc khác đi)(giá mà mọi việc khác đi)
 rest in peacerest in peace (an nghỉ ở chốn vĩnh hằng/ an giấc ngàn thu)(an nghỉ ở chốn vĩnh hằng/ an giấc ngàn thu)
 let (may) it be knownlet (may) it be known (hãy để mọi người cùng biết)(hãy để mọi người cùng biết)
 ...need only......need only... (duy nhất cần)(duy nhất cần)
 May the best man winMay the best man win (người giỏi nhất sẽ thắng)(người giỏi nhất sẽ thắng)
 "May the best man win" is an example of the"May the best man win" is an example of the
subjunctive. If may were used as a modal such as insubjunctive. If may were used as a modal such as in
"the best man may win", this would not be the"the best man may win", this would not be the
subjunctive. Other Indo-European languages use thesubjunctive. Other Indo-European languages use the
subjunctive in this same form such as in Spanishsubjunctive in this same form such as in Spanish
"que les vaya bien" (lit. may you go well) and "que"que les vaya bien" (lit. may you go well) and "que
sea de alta prioridad" (lit. may it be of high priority).sea de alta prioridad" (lit. may it be of high priority).
The subjunctive is used in this formula in SpanishThe subjunctive is used in this formula in Spanish
just as it is in English.just as it is in English.

Like all phrases, the constituents of theLike all phrases, the constituents of the
English noun phrase can be analyzed intoEnglish noun phrase can be analyzed into
both functional constituents and formalboth functional constituents and formal
constituents. From a functional point of view,constituents. From a functional point of view,
the noun phrase has four major components,the noun phrase has four major components,
occurring in a fixed order:occurring in a fixed order:

 thethe determinativedeterminative, that constituent which, that constituent which
determines the reference of the noun phrasedetermines the reference of the noun phrase
in its linguistic or situational context;in its linguistic or situational context;
 premodificationpremodification, which comprises all the, which comprises all the
modifying or describing constituents beforemodifying or describing constituents before
the head, other than the determiners;the head, other than the determiners;
 thethe headhead, around which the other, around which the other
constituents cluster; andconstituents cluster; and
 postmodificationpostmodification, those which comprise all, those which comprise all
the modifying constituents placed after thethe modifying constituents placed after the
head.head.

Ex.Ex. Several new mystery books which weSeveral new mystery books which we
recently enjoyedrecently enjoyed..
SeveralSeveral (determiner/hạn định tố/);(determiner/hạn định tố/); newnew
mysterymystery (premodifier/tiền điều biến tố);(premodifier/tiền điều biến tố);
bookbook (head/chủ tố);(head/chủ tố); which we recentlywhich we recently
enjoyedenjoyed
 ModifierModifier may refer to:may refer to:
 Grammatical modifier, an adjective orGrammatical modifier, an adjective or
adverb thatadverb that changeschanges the meaning of athe meaning of a
noun, pronoun, or verb ;noun, pronoun, or verb ; limitslimits thethe
meaningmeaning

PARTS OF SPEECH (p18)PARTS OF SPEECH (p18)
 The structures realizing sentence elementsThe structures realizing sentence elements
are composed of units which can be referredare composed of units which can be referred
to asto as parts of speechparts of speech (p18).(p18).
(a)(a)
 noun –noun – John, room, playJohn, room, play
 adjective –adjective – happy, steady, newhappy, steady, new
 adverb –adverb – steadily, completely, readilysteadily, completely, readily
 verb –verb – search, grow, playsearch, grow, play
(b)(b)
 article –article – the, anthe, an
 demonstrative –demonstrative – that, thisthat, this

 pronoun –pronoun – he, they, anybody, one, whichhe, they, anybody, one, which
 preposition –preposition – of, at, in, without, in spite ofof, at, in, without, in spite of
 conjunction –conjunction – and, that, when, althoughand, that, when, although
 interjection –interjection – oh, ah, ugh, phewoh, ah, ugh, phew
Closed-system itemsClosed-system items
Set (b) comprises what are called ‘closed-system’Set (b) comprises what are called ‘closed-system’
items (các đơn thể ‘đóng’); set (a) comprisesitems (các đơn thể ‘đóng’); set (a) comprises
‘open-classes’ (‘đơn thể/lớp từ mở’)‘open-classes’ (‘đơn thể/lớp từ mở’)
Static and dynamicStatic and dynamic
Broadly speaking, nouns and adjectives can beBroadly speaking, nouns and adjectives can be
characterized naturally as ‘stative’;characterized naturally as ‘stative’; house,house,
table, papertable, paper, or abstract like, or abstract like hope, lengthhope, length

On the other hand, verbs and adverbs can be equallyOn the other hand, verbs and adverbs can be equally
naturally characterized as ‘dynamic’: most obviously,naturally characterized as ‘dynamic’: most obviously,
verbs, which are fitted (by their capacity to showverbs, which are fitted (by their capacity to show tensetense
andand aspectaspect, for example) to indicate action, activity,, for example) to indicate action, activity,
and temporary or changing conditions. These relationsand temporary or changing conditions. These relations
between the open classes can be summerized thus:between the open classes can be summerized thus:
STATIVESTATIVE noun adjectivenoun adjective
DYNAMICDYNAMIC verb adverbverb adverb
* But some verbs such as* But some verbs such as knowknow can be regarded ascan be regarded as
stativestative; some nouns like; some nouns like a nuisancea nuisance (kẻ hay gây(kẻ hay gây
phiền toái) is not stative at all;phiền toái) is not stative at all; naughtynaughty oror insolentinsolent (xấc(xấc
láo, láo xược) are notláo, láo xược) are not stativestative but ratherbut rather dynamicdynamic..

And sinceAnd since bebe (when used to make predication having(when used to make predication having
any noun or adjective as complement) can be usedany noun or adjective as complement) can be used
dynamically, in the progressive, when thedynamically, in the progressive, when the
complement is dynamic:complement is dynamic:
a nuisancea nuisance
He is being againHe is being again
naughtynaughty
It is essential to realized that these primary distinctionsIt is essential to realized that these primary distinctions
are in the nature of general characteristics rather thanare in the nature of general characteristics rather than
immutable (không thể biến đổi được) truths (p. 21).immutable (không thể biến đổi được) truths (p. 21).

PRO-FORMSPRO-FORMS (hình-đại từ/đại tố/đại ngữ)(hình-đại từ/đại tố/đại ngữ)
John searched the bigJohn searched the big roomroom and the smalland the small oneone [1][1]
The manThe man invitedinvited the little Swedish girlthe little Swedish girl becausebecause
hehe likelike herher [2][2]
Mary isMary is in Londonin London and John isand John is therethere tootoo [3][3]
Mary arrivedMary arrived on Tuesdayon Tuesday and John arrivedand John arrived
thenthen too [4]too [4]
John searched the big room veryJohn searched the big room very carefullycarefully
and the small one lessand the small one less soso [5][5]
She hoped that he wouldShe hoped that he would searched the roomsearched the room
carefullycarefully before her arrival but he didn’tbefore her arrival but he didn’t do sodo so [6][6]
(P. 22)(P. 22)

SentenceSentence
subject predicatesubject predicate
auxiliary predication (vị tố)auxiliary predication (vị tố)
asas
operatoroperator
……he would search the room carefully…he would search the room carefully…
……he didn’t do sohe didn’t do so
AA He didn’tHe didn’t give her an applegive her an apple. B: Yes, he. B: Yes, he diddid [7][7]
They suggested that he hadThey suggested that he had given her angiven her an
appleapple and heand he had (done)had (done). [8]. [8]

QUESTION AND NEGATIONQUESTION AND NEGATION
WhWh-questions (where, who, whom, what, when)-questions (where, who, whom, what, when)
Yes-noYes-no questions (Is, Did, Had) (p. 23&24)questions (Is, Did, Had) (p. 23&24)
Negation and non-assertionNegation and non-assertion
assertion – positive and declarativeassertion – positive and declarative
Sentence positiveSentence positive
interrogative negativeinterrogative negative
non-assertionnon-assertion
negativenegative

VERBS AND THE VERBS PHRASE (p25)VERBS AND THE VERBS PHRASE (p25)
Types of verbsTypes of verbs
LEXICALLEXICAL walk, write, play, beautify, etc.walk, write, play, beautify, etc.
PrimaryPrimary do, have, bedo, have, be
AUXILIARYAUXILIARY ModalModal can, may, shall, willcan, may, shall, will
could, might, should, would.could, might, should, would.
must, ought to, used to, need, daremust, ought to, used to, need, dare
** Had better & tend to (‘semi-auxiliaries’)Had better & tend to (‘semi-auxiliaries’)
Verbal forms and verb phraseVerbal forms and verb phrase
Many English verbs have five forms:Many English verbs have five forms:

 the BASE, the -S FORM, the PAST, the –the BASE, the -S FORM, the PAST, the –INGING
PARTICIPLE, and the -PARTICIPLE, and the -EDED PARTICIPLEPARTICIPLE
 (1) Base:(1) Base: call, drink, putcall, drink, put (a) all the present(a) all the present
tense except 3tense except 3rdrd
person singular:person singular:
I/YOU/WE/THEYI/YOU/WE/THEY callcall every dayevery day
(b) imperative: Call at once!(b) imperative: Call at once!
(c) subjunctive: He demanded that she(c) subjunctive: He demanded that she callcall
and see himand see him
(d) the bare infinitive” He may(d) the bare infinitive” He may callcall; and the; and the
to-to-infinitive: He wants herinfinitive: He wants her to callto call
 (2) –s form:(2) –s form: calls, drinks, putscalls, drinks, puts (3(3rdrd
personperson
singular presents) (p. 27)singular presents) (p. 27)

THE MORPHOLOGY OF LEXICALTHE MORPHOLOGY OF LEXICAL
VERBSVERBS
► Regular lexical verbsRegular lexical verbs
Regular lexical verbs have the following forms:Regular lexical verbs have the following forms:
VV BASEBASE call like trycall like try
V-ing ING-PARTICIPLEV-ing ING-PARTICIPLE calling liking tryingcalling liking trying
V-s -S FORMV-s -S FORM calls likes triescalls likes tries
V-ed PAST/ PARTICIPLEV-ed PAST/ PARTICIPLE called liked triedcalled liked tried
► TheThe –ing–ing andand –s forms–s forms (p. 28)(p. 28)
► TheThe –ing–ing form is a straightforward addition (as inform is a straightforward addition (as in
push ~ pushing; sleep ~ sleepingpush ~ pushing; sleep ~ sleeping))
► Syllabic /l/ ceases to be syllabic before theSyllabic /l/ ceases to be syllabic before the
inflection (as ininflection (as in wriggle, wrigglingwriggle, wriggling = vặn vẹo)= vặn vẹo)

TheThe –s form–s form is also predictable from theis also predictable from the
base. It has three realizations: /iz/, /z/, andbase. It has three realizations: /iz/, /z/, and
/s/ and two spelling,/s/ and two spelling, -s-s andand -es-es
 Pronounced /iz/ after bases ending inPronounced /iz/ after bases ending in
voiced or voiceless sibilants (âm xuýt: s, z,voiced or voiceless sibilants (âm xuýt: s, z,
,,  ,, ,, ):): pass~passes, buzz~buzzes,pass~passes, buzz~buzzes,
catch~catches, budge~budges,catch~catches, budge~budges,
push~phushes, camouflage~camouflagespush~phushes, camouflage~camouflages

Pronounced /z/ and spell –s after basesPronounced /z/ and spell –s after bases
ending in other voiced sounds:ending in other voiced sounds: call~calls,call~calls,
rob~robs, flow~flowsrob~robs, flow~flows
 Pronounced /s/ and spell –s after basesPronounced /s/ and spell –s after bases
ending in other voiceless sounds:ending in other voiceless sounds:
cut~cuts, lock~locks, sap~saps (nhựacut~cuts, lock~locks, sap~saps (nhựa
cây) (p. 29)cây) (p. 29)

The past and the –ed participleThe past and the –ed participle
The past (The past (V-edV-ed11) and the –ed participle () and the –ed participle (V-edV-ed22) of) of
regular verbs (spellregular verbs (spell-ed-ed unless the base ends inunless the base ends in
–e–e) have three realizations:) have three realizations:
/id/ after bases ends in /d/ and /t/. Eg./id/ after bases ends in /d/ and /t/. Eg.
pad~paddedpad~padded pat~pattedpat~patted
/d/ after bases ends in voiced sounds other/d/ after bases ends in voiced sounds other
than /d/. Eg.than /d/. Eg. mow~mowedmow~mowed
budge~budgedbudge~budged
/t/ after bases ends in voiceless sounds other/t/ after bases ends in voiceless sounds other
than /t/. Eg.than /t/. Eg. pass~passedpass~passed pack~packed (p.pack~packed (p.
29)29)

Further inflectional spelling rulesFurther inflectional spelling rules
Final base consonant (except X) are doubledFinal base consonant (except X) are doubled
before inflections beginning with a vowelbefore inflections beginning with a vowel
letter when the preceding vowel is stressedletter when the preceding vowel is stressed
and spelled with a singular letter:and spelled with a singular letter:
barbar barringbarring barbar
permit permittingpermit permitting permittedpermitted
There is no doubling when the vowel isThere is no doubling when the vowel is
unstressed or written with two letters:unstressed or written with two letters:
enter entering enteredenter entering entered
dread dreading dreadeddread dreading dreaded

EXCEPTIONS:EXCEPTIONS:
(1) Base ending in certain consonants(1) Base ending in certain consonants
are doubled also after singleare doubled also after single
unstressed vowels: -gunstressed vowels: -g  –gg-,–gg-,
-c-c  ck-:ck-:
humbug humbugging humbuggedhumbug humbugging humbugged
traffic trafficking traffickedtraffic trafficking trafficked
(b) BrE, as distinct from AmE, breaks the(b) BrE, as distinct from AmE, breaks the
rule with respect to certain otherrule with respect to certain other
consonants also: -lconsonants also: -l  -ll, -m-ll, -m  -mm, -p-mm, -p 
-pp-:-pp-:

signal signallingsignal signalling signalledsignalled (BrE)(BrE)
signal signaling signaledsignal signaling signaled (AmE)(AmE)
travel travelling travelledtravel travelling travelled (BrE)(BrE)
travel traveling traveledtravel traveling traveled (AmE)(AmE)
program(me) programming programmed (BrE)program(me) programming programmed (BrE)
program programing programed (AmE)program programing programed (AmE)
(p. 29&30)(p. 29&30)

Treatment of –yTreatment of –y
(a) In base ending in a consonant +y, the following(a) In base ending in a consonant +y, the following
changes occur before inflections that do not begin withchanges occur before inflections that do not begin with ii::
carrry ~carried but carry ~carryingcarrry ~carried but carry ~carrying
The past of the following two verbs has a change yThe past of the following two verbs has a change y  ii
also after a vowel:also after a vowel: lay ~laidlay ~laid pay ~paidpay ~paid
(b) In bases i –ie, the(b) In bases i –ie, the ieie is replayed byis replayed by yy before the –before the –inging
inflection:inflection: die ~dying lie ~lyingdie ~dying lie ~lying
Deletion ofDeletion of –e–e
Final –e is regularly dropped before theFinal –e is regularly dropped before the –ing–ing andand –ed–ed
inflection: -ee: agree agreeing agreedinflection: -ee: agree agreeing agreed
-ye:-ye: dye dyeing dyeddye dyeing dyed
-oe:-oe: hoe hoeing hoedhoe hoeing hoed
-ge:-ge: singe singeing singedsinge singeing singed (thui)(thui)

Irregular lexical verbsIrregular lexical verbs
(P. 30-35)(P. 30-35)
The auxiliaries do, have, beThe auxiliaries do, have, be
1. Do1. Do
2. Have:2. Have: in stative sensein stative sense ( I haven’t/don’t have (AmE)( I haven’t/don’t have (AmE)
any books).any books).
In dynamic senses (In dynamic senses (receive, take, experiencereceive, take, experience, etc),, etc),
lexical have in both AmE and BrE normally has thelexical have in both AmE and BrE normally has the
do-construction:do-construction:
- Does- Does hehe havehave coffee with his breakfast?coffee with his breakfast?
- Did- Did youyou havehave any difficulty in getting here?any difficulty in getting here?
TheThe dodo-construction is required in such expression as:-construction is required in such expression as:
-- DidDid youyou havehave a good time?a good time?

There is also the informalThere is also the informal have gothave got, where, where havehave
is constructed as an auxiliary, which is frequentlyis constructed as an auxiliary, which is frequently
preferred (especially in BrE) as an alternative topreferred (especially in BrE) as an alternative to
havehave. It is common in negative and interrogative. It is common in negative and interrogative
sentences:sentences:
II haven’t gothaven’t got any books; Iany books; I havehave no booksno books
3. Be3. Be
[a] Aren’t I is widely used in BrE; Ain’t is[a] Aren’t I is widely used in BrE; Ain’t is
substandard in BrE and is so considered bysubstandard in BrE and is so considered by
many in AmE (p. 36)many in AmE (p. 36)
[b] The lexical verb[b] The lexical verb bebe may have themay have the do-do-
construction in persuasive imperativeconstruction in persuasive imperative
sentences and regularly has it with negativesentences and regularly has it with negative
imperative:imperative: Do be quiet!Do be quiet! Don’t be silly!Don’t be silly!

The modal auxiliariesThe modal auxiliaries (p. 37)(p. 37)
[a][a] Mayn’tMayn’t is restricted to BrE, where it is rare.is restricted to BrE, where it is rare.
[b][b] Shan’tShan’t is rare in AmE.is rare in AmE.
[c][c] OughtOught regularly has theregularly has the to-to-infinitive, but AmEinfinitive, but AmE
often has theoften has the bare infinitivebare infinitive in negativein negative
sentences and in questions (althoughsentences and in questions (although shouldshould
is commoner in both cases);is commoner in both cases);
- You oughtn’t smoke so muchYou oughtn’t smoke so much;;
- Ought you smoke so muchOught you smoke so much??
Marginal modal auxiliariesMarginal modal auxiliaries
UsedUsed always takes thealways takes the toto-infinitive and occurs-infinitive and occurs
only in the past tense. It may take theonly in the past tense. It may take the do-do-
construction, in which case the spellingconstruction, in which case the spelling didn’tdidn’t
used toused to andand didn’t usedidn’t use toto both occur.both occur.

The interrogative constructionThe interrogative construction used he toused he to isis
especially BrE;especially BrE; did he useddid he used to is preferred in bothto is preferred in both
AmE and BrE.AmE and BrE.
DareDare andand needneed can be constructed either ascan be constructed either as
modal auxiliaries (with bare infinitive and with nomodal auxiliaries (with bare infinitive and with no
inflectedinflected –s–s form) or as lexical verbs (withform) or as lexical verbs (with to-to-
infinitive and with inflectedinfinitive and with inflected –s–s form).form).
DareDare andand needneed as auxiliaries are probably rarer inas auxiliaries are probably rarer in
AmE than in BrE.AmE than in BrE.

MODAL AUXILIARY LEXICAL VERBMODAL AUXILIARY LEXICAL VERB
CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTIONCONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTION
positive Hepositive He needsneeds to go nowto go now
negative Henegative He needn’tneedn’t go now Hego now He doesn’t need todoesn’t need to go nowgo now
Interrog.Interrog. NeedNeed he go now?he go now? Does he need toDoes he need to go now?go now?
neg-inter.neg-inter. Needn’tNeedn’t he go now?he go now? Doesn’t he need toDoesn’t he need to go now?go now?
[a] Non-assertive forms are not confined to overtly[a] Non-assertive forms are not confined to overtly
negative and/or interrogative sentences but can also benegative and/or interrogative sentences but can also be
present in adverbials eg.present in adverbials eg. He need do it only underHe need do it only under
thesethese circumstancescircumstances.. He need not do it but onceHe need not do it but once. In. In
determiners, eg.determiners, eg. He need have no fearHe need have no fear.. No soldier dareNo soldier dare
dsobeydsobey; in pronouns eg.; in pronouns eg. No one dare predictNo one dare predict..
[b] Blends of the two constructions are widely acceptable in the[b] Blends of the two constructions are widely acceptable in the
case ofcase of daredare:: We do not dare speakWe do not dare speak (p. 38)(p. 38)

FINITE AND NON-FINITE VERB PHRASEFINITE AND NON-FINITE VERB PHRASE
(1).(1). Finite verb phrases have tense distinction:Finite verb phrases have tense distinction:
- He studies/studied EnglishHe studies/studied English
- (2) Finite verb phrases occur as the verb(2) Finite verb phrases occur as the verb
element of a clause. There is person and numberelement of a clause. There is person and number
concord between the subject and the finite verb (p. 38)concord between the subject and the finite verb (p. 38)
(3) Finite verb phrase have mood (indicative,(3) Finite verb phrase have mood (indicative,
interrogative, imperative; exclamatory, conditional andinterrogative, imperative; exclamatory, conditional and
subjunctive)subjunctive)
(4) The non-finite forms of the verb are the infinitive (((4) The non-finite forms of the verb are the infinitive ((toto))
callcall), the), the –ing–ing participle (participle (callingcalling), and the), and the –ed–ed
participle. Non-finite verb phrases consist of one orparticiple. Non-finite verb phrases consist of one or
more such items.more such items.

FINITE VERB PHRASE NON- FINITE VERB PHRASEFINITE VERB PHRASE NON- FINITE VERB PHRASE
HeHe smokessmokes heavilyheavily To smokeTo smoke like that must belike that must be
dangerousdangerous
HeHe is workingis working I found himI found him workingworking
HeHe had beenhad been Having been offendedHaving been offended
offendedoffended before before, he was sensitivebefore before, he was sensitive
The modal, perfective, progressive auxiliariesThe modal, perfective, progressive auxiliaries
follow a strict order in the complex verb phrasefollow a strict order in the complex verb phrase
(p. 39)(p. 39)
Contrasts expressed in the verb phraseContrasts expressed in the verb phrase
(p. 39 & 40)(p. 39 & 40)

(a)(a) VoiceVoice, involving the active-passive relation, as in, involving the active-passive relation, as in
- A doctor- A doctor will examinewill examine the applicants.the applicants.
~~ The applicantsThe applicants will be examinedwill be examined by a doctor.by a doctor.
(b)(b) QuestionsQuestions requiring subject movement involve the use ofrequiring subject movement involve the use of
an auxiliary as operator:an auxiliary as operator:
- JohnJohn will singwill sing ~~ WillWill JohnJohn sing?sing?
- JohnJohn sangsang ~~ DidDid JohnJohn sing?sing?
(c)(c) NegationNegation makes analogous us of operators, as inmakes analogous us of operators, as in
- JohnJohn will singwill sing ~~ JohnJohn won’twon’t singsing
- JohnJohn sangsang ~~ JohnJohn didn’t singdidn’t sing
(d)(d) EmphasisEmphasis, which is frequently carried by the operator as, which is frequently carried by the operator as
inin
- John WILL sing!John WILL sing!
- John DID sing!John DID sing!
(e)(e) imperativesimperatives, as in, as in Go home, JohnGo home, John;; You go home, JohnYou go home, John

peri-peri-
phrasticphrastic
primaryprimary
auxiliary auxiliary verbs aspectualauxiliary auxiliary verbs aspectual
passivepassive
modalmodal
verbs auxiliaryverbs auxiliary
semi-auxiliary verbssemi-auxiliary verbs
DO
HAVE
BE
can could
may might
Shall should
Will/’ll would/’d
used to
must
ought to
need
dare
HAVE TO, BE ABOUT TO…
WALK, PLAY,
PROCRASTINATE

TENSE, ASPECT ANDTENSE, ASPECT AND
MOODMOOD
 Time is a universal concept with three divisions:Time is a universal concept with three divisions:
PAST TIME PRESENT TIME FUTURE TIMEPAST TIME PRESENT TIME FUTURE TIME
The units of time are extra-linguistic: They existThe units of time are extra-linguistic: They exist
independently of the grammar of any particularindependently of the grammar of any particular
language. In our use of language, however, we makelanguage. In our use of language, however, we make
linguistic reference to these extra-linguistic realitieslinguistic reference to these extra-linguistic realities
by means of the language-specific category of tense.by means of the language-specific category of tense.
(P. 40).(P. 40).

 ByBy tensetense we understand thewe understand the
correspondence between the form of thecorrespondence between the form of the
verb and ourverb and our concept of timeconcept of time..
 AspectAspect concerns the manner in whichconcerns the manner in which
the verbal action is experienced orthe verbal action is experienced or
regarded (for exampleregarded (for example completedcompleted oror
inin progressprogress).).
 MoodMood relates verb action to suchrelates verb action to such
conditions as certainty, obligation,conditions as certainty, obligation,
necessity, possibility (p40).necessity, possibility (p40).

 In fact, however, to a great extentIn fact, however, to a great extent
three categories impinge on eachthree categories impinge on each
other; in particular, the expressionother; in particular, the expression
of time present and past cannot beof time present and past cannot be
considered separately fromconsidered separately from aspectaspect,,
and the expression of future isand the expression of future is
closely bound up withclosely bound up with moodmood (p.40)(p.40)

TENSETENSE
English has two tenses:English has two tenses:
PRESENT TENSE and PAST TENSEPRESENT TENSE and PAST TENSE
 We considerWe consider presentpresent andand pastpast tensestenses inin
relation to therelation to the progressiveprogressive andand perfect aspectsperfect aspects..
‘‘I …………..with a special pen’, fill the blank withI …………..with a special pen’, fill the blank with
a phrase having the verb basea phrase having the verb base writewrite..

SIMPLE COMPLEXSIMPLE COMPLEX
progressiveprogressive
present write am writingpresent write am writing presentpresent
was writingwas writing pastpast
perfectiveperfective
past wrote have written (past wrote have written (presentpresent
perfectperfect))
had written (had written (pa. (or plu- )pa. (or plu- )
progressiveprogressive
have been writing (pr. Perf.)have been writing (pr. Perf.)
had been writing (pas. Perf)had been writing (pas. Perf)
(p. 41)(p. 41)

PresentPresent
(a)(a) Timeless: I (always)Timeless: I (always) writewrite with a special penwith a special pen
(p. 41)(p. 41)
(b)(b) Limited:Limited: II am writingam writing (on this occasion)(on this occasion) with awith a
special penspecial pen;; Normally heNormally he liveslives in London but atin London but at
present hepresent he is livingis living in Bostonin Boston..
(c)(c) Instantaneous, expressed with either theInstantaneous, expressed with either the
simple (especially in a series) or thesimple (especially in a series) or the
progressive form:progressive form:

Watch careful now: first IWatch careful now: first I writewrite with my ordinarywith my ordinary
pen; now, Ipen; now, I writewrite with a special pen.with a special pen.
As you see, IAs you see, I am droppingam dropping the stone into thethe stone into the
water.water.
NoteNote
The verbsThe verbs keepkeep ((onon),), go ongo on have a similarhave a similar
function to the normal progressive auxiliary mayfunction to the normal progressive auxiliary may
be:be:
keepskeeps
goes ongoes on
John asking silly questionsasking silly questions

PastPast
(1)(1) As having taken place at a particular point of time;As having taken place at a particular point of time;
(2)(2) or over a period; if the latter, the period may be seenor over a period; if the latter, the period may be seen
as (a) extending up to the present, or (b) relating only toas (a) extending up to the present, or (b) relating only to
the past; if the latter, it may be viewed as (i) having beenthe past; if the latter, it may be viewed as (i) having been
completed or as (ii) not having been completedcompleted or as (ii) not having been completed
Past Present FuturePast Present Future
(1)(1)
(2a)(2a)
(2bi)(2bi)
(2bii)(2bii)

(1) I(1) I wrotewrote my letter of 16 June 1972 with amy letter of 16 June 1972 with a
special penspecial pen
(2a) I(2a) I have writtenhave written with a special pen since 1972with a special pen since 1972
(2bi) I(2bi) I wrotewrote with a special pen from 1969 towith a special pen from 1969 to
19721972
(2bii) I(2bii) I was writingwas writing poetry with a special pen.poetry with a special pen.
Habitual activity can also be expressed withHabitual activity can also be expressed with
simple past; used to or (less commonly would)simple past; used to or (less commonly would)
may be used:may be used:
- HeHe used to/wouldused to/would write with a special penwrite with a special pen
*** ‘historic present’ (p. 43)*** ‘historic present’ (p. 43)
The past and the perfectiveThe past and the perfective
- John- John livedlived in Paris for ten yearsin Paris for ten years
- John- John has livedhas lived in Paris for ten years (p. 43)in Paris for ten years (p. 43)

The choice of perfective perspective is associated withThe choice of perfective perspective is associated with
time–orientation and consequently also with varioustime–orientation and consequently also with various
time-indicators (time-indicators (lately, since, so far,lately, since, so far, etc) (p. 43)etc) (p. 43)
yesterday (evening) since last Ja.yesterday (evening) since last Ja.
I worked throughout January up to nowI worked throughout January up to now
on Tuesday latelyon Tuesday lately
alreadyalready
todaytoday
I this monthI this month
for an hourfor an hour
***Note***Note
There is some tendency (especially in AmE) to use theThere is some tendency (especially in AmE) to use the
past informally in phrase of the perfect, as in ‘I saw itpast informally in phrase of the perfect, as in ‘I saw it
already’already’ (= ‘I have already seen it’) (p 44).(= ‘I have already seen it’) (p 44).
I have workedI have worked
worked
have worked

Past perfectPast perfect
Past Present FuturePast Present Future
relevant pointrelevant point
(I say now [(I say now [presentpresent] that) when I met him [] that) when I met him [relevantrelevant
point in the pastpoint in the past] John had lived in Paris for ten years.] John had lived in Paris for ten years.
In some contexts, the simple past and the past perfectIn some contexts, the simple past and the past perfect
are interchangeable; eg.are interchangeable; eg.
- I ate my lunch after my wifeI ate my lunch after my wife came/had comecame/had come homehome
from her shopping.from her shopping.
NoteNote:: There is no interchangeability when the pastThere is no interchangeability when the past
perfect is the past of the perfect (p.45).perfect is the past of the perfect (p.45).

VERBAL MEANING AND THE PROGRESSIVEVERBAL MEANING AND THE PROGRESSIVE
[A] DYNAMIC (p.46)[A] DYNAMIC (p.46)
(1)(1) Activity vbs:Activity vbs: abandon, ask, beg, call, drink, eatabandon, ask, beg, call, drink, eat……
(2)(2) Process vbs:Process vbs: change, deteriorate, grow, maturechange, deteriorate, grow, mature……
(3)(3) Verbs of bodily sensation:Verbs of bodily sensation: ache, feel, hurt, itchache, feel, hurt, itch……
(4)(4) Transitional event verbs:Transitional event verbs: arrive, die, fall, land, losearrive, die, fall, land, lose……
(5)(5) Momentary verbs:Momentary verbs: hit, jump, kick, knock, nod, taphit, jump, kick, knock, nod, tap……
[B] STATIVE[B] STATIVE
(1)(1) Verbs of inert (trì trệ) perception and cognition:Verbs of inert (trì trệ) perception and cognition:
abhor, adore,abhor, adore,
astonish, desire, detest, dislike, feel, forgive, guess…astonish, desire, detest, dislike, feel, forgive, guess…
(2) Relational verbs: apply to (everyone), be, belong to,(2) Relational verbs: apply to (everyone), be, belong to,
concern, consist of, cost, depend on, deserve (p.47)concern, consist of, cost, depend on, deserve (p.47)

THE FUTURE (p.47)THE FUTURE (p.47)
 There isThere is no obvious future tenseno obvious future tense in Englishin English
corresponding to the time/tense relation forcorresponding to the time/tense relation for
present and past (p. 47).present and past (p. 47).
Instead there are several possibilities for denotingInstead there are several possibilities for denoting
future time.future time.
FuturityFuturity,, modalitymodality, and, and aspectaspect are closely related,are closely related,
andand future timefuture time is rendered by means ofis rendered by means of modalmodal
auxiliaries or semi-auxiliariesauxiliaries or semi-auxiliaries, or by, or by simplesimple
present forms or progressive formspresent forms or progressive forms..
WillWill andand ShallShall

 Be going to + infinitiveBe going to + infinitive
This construction denote ‘future fulfillment of theThis construction denote ‘future fulfillment of the
present’.present’.
It has two more specific meaning (a) ‘future of presentIt has two more specific meaning (a) ‘future of present
intention’: - Whenintention’: - When areare youyou going to get marriedgoing to get married?, and (b)?, and (b)
‘‘future of present cause’: - She isfuture of present cause’: - She is going to havegoing to have a baby;a baby;
It’sIt’s going to raingoing to rain..
 Present progressivePresent progressive
The pres. progressive refers to future happeningThe pres. progressive refers to future happening
anticipated in the present. Its basic meaning is ‘fixedanticipated in the present. Its basic meaning is ‘fixed
arrangement, plan, or programme’:arrangement, plan, or programme’: He’s moving toHe’s moving to
LondonLondon..
We can say: - They are washing the dishesWe can say: - They are washing the dishes now/laternow/later..

The present progressive is especially frequentThe present progressive is especially frequent
with dynamic transitional verbs likewith dynamic transitional verbs like arrive, come,arrive, come,
go, land, start, stop, etcgo, land, start, stop, etc: -: - The planeThe plane is taking offis taking off
at 5.20at 5.20.. The PresidentThe President is comingis coming to the UN thisto the UN this
week.week.
Simple present (p. 49)Simple present (p. 49)
The simple present is regularly usedThe simple present is regularly used
in subordinate clauses that are conditionalin subordinate clauses that are conditional
(introduced by(introduced by if, unlessif, unless, etc) or temporal (, etc) or temporal (asas
soon as, before, whensoon as, before, when, etc): -, etc): - What will you sayWhat will you say
if Iif I marrymarry my boss?my boss? –– The guests will be drunkThe guests will be drunk
before theybefore they leaveleave (p. 49)(p. 49)

Be to + infinitiveBe to + infinitive
(a)(a) arrangement: -arrangement: - We are to be married soonWe are to be married soon
(b)(b) command: -command: - You are to be back by 10 o’clockYou are to be back by 10 o’clock
(c)(c) contingent future: -contingent future: - If he is to succeed, heIf he is to succeed, he
must work hardermust work harder..
Be about to + infinitiveBe about to + infinitive
This construction expresses near future,This construction expresses near future, ieie
immutable fulfillment:immutable fulfillment:
- The taxi is here and we areThe taxi is here and we are about to leaveabout to leave..
Future time in the pastFuture time in the past
(1) Auxiliary verb construction with(1) Auxiliary verb construction with wouldwould..
- The time was not far off when heThe time was not far off when he wouldwould regretregret
this decisionthis decision..

(2)(2) be goingbe going to + infinitive (often the sense ofto + infinitive (often the sense of
‘‘unfulfilled intention’: - Youunfulfilled intention’: - You were going towere going to give me yourgive me your
address.address.
(3) Past progressive: - I was meeting him in Bordeaux(3) Past progressive: - I was meeting him in Bordeaux
the next day.the next day.
(4)(4) be tobe to + infinitive (formal = ‘was destined’, ‘was+ infinitive (formal = ‘was destined’, ‘was
arranged’): - He was laterarranged’): - He was later to regretto regret his decision.his decision.
(5)(5) be about tobe about to (‘on the point of’): - He was(‘on the point of’): - He was about to hitabout to hit
meme..
(p. 50)(p. 50)

THE SUBJUNCTIVETHE SUBJUNCTIVE
 (a) the(a) the MANDATIVE SUBJUNCTIVEMANDATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE in that-in that-
clausesclauses
Has only one form, the base (V). This subjunctive can beHas only one form, the base (V). This subjunctive can be
used with any verb in subordinate that-clauses when theused with any verb in subordinate that-clauses when the
main clause contains an expression of recommendation,main clause contains an expression of recommendation,
resolution, demand, and so on (resolution, demand, and so on (We demand, require,We demand, require,
move, insist, suggest, ask, etc thatmove, insist, suggest, ask, etc that…).…).
+ The use of this subjunctive (formal style) (AmE);+ The use of this subjunctive (formal style) (AmE);
* Less formal contexts: to + infinitive or should +* Less formal contexts: to + infinitive or should +
infinitive.infinitive.
- It is/was necessary that every memberIt is/was necessary that every member iinformnform himselfhimself
of these rulesof these rules
(should inform; to inform)

(b)(b) The formulaic subjunctiveThe formulaic subjunctive
- Come what mayCome what may
- God save the Queen!God save the Queen!
- Be that as it may (Be that as it may (
(c)(c) The subjunctiveThe subjunctive werewere
*- If she were/was to do something like that,…*- If she were/was to do something like that,…
- He spoke to me as if I were/was deaf.He spoke to me as if I were/was deaf.
- I wish I were/was dead.I wish I were/was dead. ButBut
onlyonly werewere is used in ‘As it were” (= so to speak)is used in ‘As it were” (= so to speak)
* Was less formal than were (p. 51).* Was less formal than were (p. 51).

Modal PastModal Past
**It is the past tense that conveys the impossibilityIt is the past tense that conveys the impossibility
- It’s time youIt’s time you werewere in bedin bed
- He behaves as though heHe behaves as though he was/werewas/were a millionairea millionaire
- It’s not as though weIt’s not as though we werewere poorpoor
- Just suppose/imagine someoneJust suppose/imagine someone was/werewas/were following usfollowing us
- I’d rather weI’d rather we hadhad dinner nowdinner now
- If only IIf only I hadhad listened to my parents!listened to my parents!
*Unreal meaning in the past time is in past time is*Unreal meaning in the past time is in past time is
indicated by had plus theindicated by had plus the –ed–ed participleparticiple::
- If heIf he had listenedhad listened to me, heto me, he wouldn’t have madewouldn’t have made thethe
Mistakes. (p.338)Mistakes. (p.338)

THE USES OF MODAL AUXILIARIESTHE USES OF MODAL AUXILIARIES
CAN/COULDCAN/COULD
MAY/MIGHTMAY/MIGHT
SHALL/SHOULDSHALL/SHOULD
WILL/WOULDWILL/WOULD
MUSTMUST
OUGHT TOOUGHT TO
THE TENSE OF MODALTHE TENSE OF MODAL
THE MODALS AND ASPECTTHE MODALS AND ASPECT
(P 52-58)(P 52-58)

NOUNS, PRONOUNS, ANDNOUNS, PRONOUNS, AND
THE BASIC NOUN PHRASETHE BASIC NOUN PHRASE
 The basic noun phrase (p. 59)The basic noun phrase (p. 59)
(a)(a) The girlThe girl
(b)(b) The pretty girlThe pretty girl
(c)(c) The pretty girl is in the cornerThe pretty girl is in the corner is Mary Smithis Mary Smith
(d)(d) The pretty girl who became angryThe pretty girl who became angry
(e)(e) SheShe
The NP typically functions as subject, object,The NP typically functions as subject, object,
complement of sentences, and as complement incomplement of sentences, and as complement in
prepositional phrases.prepositional phrases.
 Noun classesNoun classes

 Noun classes (p. 59)Noun classes (p. 59)
 Proper nounsProper nouns
 Common nounsCommon nouns
 Count-nounCount-noun
 Non-count nounsNon-count nouns
COUNTCOUNT NON-COUNTNON-COUNT
I’ve had manyI’ve had many difficultiesdifficulties He’s not has muchHe’s not has much difficultydifficulty
He’s had manyHe’s had many This job requiresThis job requires experienceexperience
oddodd experiencesexperiences
Buy an eveningBuy an evening newspapernewspaper Wrap the parcel in brownWrap the parcel in brown paperpaper
She was aShe was a beautybeauty in She hadin She had beautybeauty in her youthin her youth
her youthher youth
TheThe talkstalks will take place I dislikewill take place I dislike talktalk

DeterminersDeterminers (six classes) (tất định tố/tất định từ)(six classes) (tất định tố/tất định từ)
COUNTCOUNT NON-COUNTNON-COUNT
SINGULARSINGULAR
PLURALPLURAL
[A][A] thethe
possessivepossessive ((my, ourmy, our, etc.), etc.)
whose, whichwhose, which((everever),), whatwhat((everever))
somesome ((stressedstressed))
anyany ((stressedstressed))
nono
[B][B] zero articlezero article (as in ‘They need(as in ‘They need furniturefurniture’)’)
somesome ((unstressedunstressed))
anyany ((unstressedunstressed))
enoughenough
bottlebottle
bottlesbottles
furniture
√√ √√
√√
See 4.92 f
√√
√√

COUNTCOUNT NON-COUNTNON-COUNT
SINGULARSINGULAR
PLURALPLURAL
[C][C] thisthis
thatthat
[D][D] thesethese
thosethose
bottlebottle
bottlesbottles
furniture
√√
√√
√√

COUNTCOUNT NON-COUNTNON-COUNT
SINGULARSINGULAR
PLURALPLURAL
[E] a(n)[E] a(n)
everyevery
eacheach
eithereither
neitherneither
[F][F] muchmuch
Note:Note: EitherEither bookbook ~~ EitherEither of the booksof the books
HisHis everyevery word (= ‘each of his word’)word (= ‘each of his word’) (p. 62)(p. 62)
bottlebottle
bottlesbottles
furniture
√√
√√

PredeterminersPredeterminers (p. 63)(p. 63)
All, both, halfAll, both, half
SINGULAR COUNT NOUNSSINGULAR COUNT NOUNS
NON COUNT/MASS NOUNSNON COUNT/MASS NOUNS
PLULAR COUNT NOUNSPLULAR COUNT NOUNS
half
all
a
this, that
the, my,…
pen
book
half
all
both
the, my,…
these, those
 article
pens
book half
all
the, my,…
this, that
ink
 article

 All, bothAll, both, and, and halfhalf have of-constructions, whichhave of-constructions, which
are optional with nouns and obligatory with personalare optional with nouns and obligatory with personal
pronouns:pronouns:
-- allall (of) the meat(of) the meat all ofall of itit
- both (of) the students- both (of) the students both of themboth of them
-- halfhalf ((ofof) the time) the time half ofhalf of itit
 With a qualifier following, the of-construction isWith a qualifier following, the of-construction is
preferred (especially in AmE):preferred (especially in AmE):
-- all of the many boysall of the many boys
 One-third, two-fifths, etcOne-third, two-fifths, etc
The fractionsThe fractions one-third, two-fifths, three-quartersone-third, two-fifths, three-quarters
etc used with non-count and with singular andetc used with non-count and with singular and
plural count nouns can also be followed by determiners,plural count nouns can also be followed by determiners,
and have the alternativeand have the alternative ofof-construction (p. 65).-construction (p. 65).

QuantifiersQuantifiers (Lượng từ)(Lượng từ)
 many, (a)few, severalmany, (a)few, several
 much (a)littlemuch (a)little
a few biscuits (= several)a few biscuits (= several)
He took few biscuits (= not many)He took few biscuits (= not many)
a little butter (= some)a little butter (= some)
little butter (= not much)little butter (= not much)
*(a) little*(a) little ≠ the homonymous adjective: A little bird…≠ the homonymous adjective: A little bird…
*(b) Many and few can be used predicatively in formal*(b) Many and few can be used predicatively in formal
style: His faults werestyle: His faults were manymany..
*Many an ambitious students (= many ambitious*Many an ambitious students (= many ambitious
studentsstudents
* Enough can be used with both count and non-count* Enough can be used with both count and non-count
nouns (p. 66).nouns (p. 66).

 Phrasal quantifiersPhrasal quantifiers (Lượng từ kết ngữ)(Lượng từ kết ngữ)
- plenty of, a lot of, lots of ( (non-count and plural count)plenty of, a lot of, lots of ( (non-count and plural count)
* lots (chiefly informally)* lots (chiefly informally)
*a great/good deal of money*a great/good deal of money
a large/small quantity/amount of moneya large/small quantity/amount of money
*a great/large/good number of students (p. 67)*a great/large/good number of students (p. 67)
*two pieces/a bit/an item of news/information/furniture*two pieces/a bit/an item of news/information/furniture
*a slice of cake; a roast of meat; a few loaves of bread; a*a slice of cake; a roast of meat; a few loaves of bread; a
howl of soup; a bottle of winehowl of soup; a bottle of wine
*a pine of beer; a spoonful of medicine; a pound of*a pine of beer; a spoonful of medicine; a pound of
butterbutter

 Reference and the ArticlesReference and the Articles (p. 67)(p. 67)
++ Specific/generic referenceSpecific/generic reference
- A lion and two tiger are sleeping in the cage (specific)A lion and two tiger are sleeping in the cage (specific)
- Tigers are dangerous animal (generic)Tigers are dangerous animal (generic)
**Tigers live in the jungleTigers live in the jungle && The tiger lives in the jungle.The tiger lives in the jungle.
 The English drink beer in pubs &The English drink beer in pubs &
 The Englishmen (who live here) drink beer every dayThe Englishmen (who live here) drink beer every day
(p.68).(p.68).
+ Non-count and plural count nouns+ Non-count and plural count nouns
 He likes wine, wood, music, lakes, gamesHe likes wine, wood, music, lakes, games
 He likes the wine(s), the music, the lakes of FranceHe likes the wine(s), the music, the lakes of France
 Venetian glassVenetian glass
the glass of Venicethe glass of Venice
Mrs Nelson adores the glass of VeniceMrs Nelson adores the glass of Venice
(p.71) glass from Venice(p.71) glass from Venice

 NumberNumber
 Singular (one)Singular (one)
 Plural (more than one)Plural (more than one)
 Count nouns are variable (singular or plural) or haveCount nouns are variable (singular or plural) or have
invariable plural (cattle) (p. 81).invariable plural (cattle) (p. 81).
 Irregular pluralsIrregular plurals: analysis: analysis →→ analyses; axisanalyses; axis →→
axes; crisisaxes; crisis → crises; ***brother → brothers →→ crises; ***brother → brothers →
Brethen, ***This sheep looks small &Brethen, ***This sheep looks small & All those sheepAll those sheep
are mine; ***a few fish & the fishes of Mediterraneanare mine; ***a few fish & the fishes of Mediterranean
(p. 86).(p. 86).

 Collective nounsCollective nouns
+ The committee has/have met it has/they have+ The committee has/have met it has/they have
rejected the proposalrejected the proposal

PRONOUNS (p.100)PRONOUNS (p.100)
(1)(1) They do not admit determinersThey do not admit determiners
(2)(2) They often have an objective caseThey often have an objective case
(3)(3) They often have person distinctionThey often have person distinction
(4)(4) They often have overt gender contrastThey often have overt gender contrast
(5)(5) Singular and plural forms are often notSingular and plural forms are often not
morphologically relatedmorphologically related
(p. 100)(p. 100)

We can broadly distinguished betweenWe can broadly distinguished between
items withitems with specificspecific reference and thosereference and those
with morewith more indefiniteindefinite referencereference
personalpersonal
central reflectivecentral reflective
reciprocalreciprocal
possessivepossessive
specificspecific relativerelative
interrogativeinterrogative
demonstrativedemonstrative
universaluniversal
assertiveassertive
indefiniteindefinite partitivepartitive non-assertivenon-assertive
negativenegative
generalgeneral
quantifying enumerativequantifying enumerative

PersonalPersonal: I, we, you, he, she, it, they: I, we, you, he, she, it, they
ReflectiveReflective: myself, ourselves, yourself, himself,: myself, ourselves, yourself, himself,
herself, itself,herself, itself, themselvesthemselves
ReciprocalReciprocal: each other (with two antecedents),: each other (with two antecedents),
one another (moreone another (more than two arethan two are
involved)involved)
PossessivePossessive: my, our, your, his, her, its, their: my, our, your, his, her, its, their
(determiner function)(determiner function)
mine, ours, yours, his, hers, its, theirsmine, ours, yours, his, hers, its, theirs
RelativeRelative: who, whom, which, whose, that, zero is: who, whom, which, whose, that, zero is
used identicallyused identically to thatto that
InterrogativeInterrogative: whose, which, who, what: whose, which, who, what
DemonstrativeDemonstrative: this, that, these, those: this, that, these, those

UniversalUniversal: each, everybody, everyone,: each, everybody, everyone,
everywhere, all, every weekeverywhere, all, every week
AssertiveAssertive: - partitive pronoun:: - partitive pronoun:
something/some, anything/any,something/some, anything/any,
nothing/nonothing/no
- non-assertive: anyone, anybody,- non-assertive: anyone, anybody,
anything, either, anyanything, either, any
- negative: no one, nobody nothing,- negative: no one, nobody nothing,
nowhere, none, neithernowhere, none, neither
GeneralGeneral: many, much, few, a few, little, a: many, much, few, a few, little, a
littlelittle
EnumerativeEnumerative: many, much, few, little,: many, much, few, little,
several, enoughseveral, enough

CASECASE
 Common case (Common case (somebodysomebody))
 Generative (Generative (somebody’ssomebody’s))
 Subjective: I, we, he, she, they, whoSubjective: I, we, he, she, they, who
 Objective: me, us, him, her, them who(m)Objective: me, us, him, her, them who(m)
 Genitive: my, our, his, her, their, whoseGenitive: my, our, his, her, their, whose
* No inflected or –s genitive with demonstratives* No inflected or –s genitive with demonstratives
or with the indefinites except in -one, -bodyor with the indefinites except in -one, -body
(p. 101)(p. 101)

PERSONPERSON
 11stst
personperson
 22ndnd
personperson
 33rdrd
personperson
Note: The use ofNote: The use of oneone (a) Numerical one (p. 111)(a) Numerical one (p. 111)
(b) Replacive one (p. 112), (c) Indefinite one (p.(b) Replacive one (p. 112), (c) Indefinite one (p.
112)112)

ADJECTIVES ANDADJECTIVES AND
ADVERSADVERS
Syntactic functions of adjectivesSyntactic functions of adjectives
 AttributiveAttributive: the: the beautifulbeautiful paintingpainting
 PredicativePredicative adjective: (a)adjective: (a) subject complementsubject complement::
-Your daughter is-Your daughter is prettypretty
(b)(b) object complementobject complement :- He made his wife:- He made his wife happyhappy (p.(p.
115).115).
 They can be complement to a subject which isThey can be complement to a subject which is
a finite clause:- Whether he will resign isa finite clause:- Whether he will resign is uncertainuncertain
or a non-finite clause:- Driving a bus isn’tor a non-finite clause:- Driving a bus isn’t easyeasy. Similarly,. Similarly,
adjective can be complement to clauses:adjective can be complement to clauses:

what he didwhat he did
playing so hardplaying so hard
 The functioning as an object complement oftenThe functioning as an object complement often
expressed the result of the process by the verb:expressed the result of the process by the verb:
He pulled his beltHe pulled his belt tighttight
He pulled the windowHe pulled the window openopen
 Postpositive (indefinite pronounsPostpositive (indefinite pronouns –body, -one,–body, -one,
-thing, -where-thing, -where can be modified only postpositivelycan be modified only postpositively
- I want something (that is)I want something (that is) largerlarger
Postposition is obligatory (p. 116)Postposition is obligatory (p. 116)
- The president- The president electelect - the City of London- the City of London properproper
 The house (which is)The house (which is) ablazeablaze is next door to mineis next door to mine
I consider foolish

 If an adjective is alone or pre-modified merely by anIf an adjective is alone or pre-modified merely by an
intensifier, postposition normally is not allowed:intensifier, postposition normally is not allowed:
- The- The rather timidrather timid soldierssoldiers
- *The soldiers (*The soldiers (ratherrather)) timidtimid
 However, if the noun phrase is generic orHowever, if the noun phrase is generic or
indefinite, coordinated adjectives or adjectives with aindefinite, coordinated adjectives or adjectives with a
clause element added can be post-posedclause element added can be post-posed
- Soldiers- Soldiers timidtimid oror cowardlycowardly don’t fight welldon’t fight well
- A man- A man usuallyusually honesthonest will sometimes cheat (p. 116)will sometimes cheat (p. 116)
 More commonly, we findMore commonly, we find
- Timid- Timid oror cowardlycowardly soldierssoldiers
- Soldiers who are- Soldiers who are timid or cowardlytimid or cowardly
approach their officer
don’t fight well

 Head of noun phraseHead of noun phrase (p. 117)(p. 117)
 Adjectives can often function as heads of nounAdjectives can often function as heads of noun
phrases (most commonly, such adjective have personalphrases (most commonly, such adjective have personal
reference:reference:
- The extremely oldThe extremely old need a great deal of attentionneed a great deal of attention
- We will nurseWe will nurse your sickyour sick and feedand feed your hungryyour hungry (p. 118(p. 118
& 119)& 119)
 Verbless adjective clauseVerbless adjective clause
- An adjective (alone or as head of an adjective- An adjective (alone or as head of an adjective
phrase) can function as a verbless clause:phrase) can function as a verbless clause:
- (- (By thenBy then)) nervousnervous, the man opened the letter, the man opened the letter
- The man, (- The man, (by thenby then)) nervousnervous, opened the letter, opened the letter
- The man opened the letter, (- The man opened the letter, (by thenby then)) nervousnervous

 CONTINGENT ADJECTIVE CLAUSECONTINGENT ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
- Enthusiastic- Enthusiastic, they make good students (= When, they make good students (= When
enthusiastic,…) (p. 120)enthusiastic,…) (p. 120)
 Exclamatory adjective sentenceExclamatory adjective sentence
- How good of you!- How good of you!
 Syntactic subclassification of adjectivesSyntactic subclassification of adjectives
(1) both(1) both attributiveattributive andand predicativepredicative, eg.: a, eg.: a hungryhungry
man ~ the man isman ~ the man is hungryhungry
(2)(2) attributiveattributive only: anonly: an utterutter foolfool
(3)(3) predicativepredicative only: the woman isonly: the woman is loathloath to admit itto admit it
 ***Attributive only***Attributive only :: oldold friend (p. 121)friend (p. 121)
 INTENSIFYING ADJECTIVESINTENSIFYING ADJECTIVES
(emphasizers and amplifiers) (p. 121 & 122)(emphasizers and amplifiers) (p. 121 & 122)

 Emphasizers are attributive only: aEmphasizers are attributive only: a certaincertain winnerwinner
 Amplifier: aAmplifier: a completecomplete victoryvictory
LIMITER ADJECTIVESLIMITER ADJECTIVES
 Limiter adjectives particularize the reference of aLimiter adjectives particularize the reference of a
noun: thenoun: the mainmain reasonreason thethe onlyonly occasionoccasion
RELATED TO ADVERBIALSRELATED TO ADVERBIALS
 mymy formerformer friend ~ formally my friendfriend ~ formally my friend
 anan occasionaloccasional visitor ~ occasionally (p. 123)visitor ~ occasionally (p. 123)
DENOMINAL ADJECTIVEDENOMINAL ADJECTIVE (tính từ danh xưng)(tính từ danh xưng)
 CriminalCriminal law ~ law concerning lawlaw ~ law concerning law
Predicative onlyPredicative only: He is: He is illill (p. 124)(p. 124)

 Semantic sub-classification of adjectivesSemantic sub-classification of adjectives
[A] Static/dynamic: Adjectives are characterized as[A] Static/dynamic: Adjectives are characterized as
stative, but many can be seen as dynamic. In particular,stative, but many can be seen as dynamic. In particular,
most adjectives that are susceptible to subjectivemost adjectives that are susceptible to subjective
measurement are capable of being dynamic (p/ 124):measurement are capable of being dynamic (p/ 124):
awkward, brave, calm, careless, cruel… timidawkward, brave, calm, careless, cruel… timid
[B] Gradable/ non-gradable:[B] Gradable/ non-gradable: tall taller, tallesttall taller, tallest
[C] Inherent/non-inherent (p. 125).[C] Inherent/non-inherent (p. 125).
 Semantic sets and adjectival orderSemantic sets and adjectival order
(intensify, post-determiner and limiter, size or shape,(intensify, post-determiner and limiter, size or shape,
age, colour, material, provenance or style)age, colour, material, provenance or style)

(a)(a) intensifying adjective: aintensifying adjective: a realreal herohero
(b)(b) pos-determiner, and limiter adjective: thepos-determiner, and limiter adjective: the fourthfourth
student, thestudent, the onlyonly occasionoccasion
(c)(c) general adjectives susceptible to subjectivegeneral adjectives susceptible to subjective
measure:measure: carefulcareful,, lovelylovely
(d)(d) general adjectives susceptible to objective measure,general adjectives susceptible to objective measure,
including those denoting size or shape:including those denoting size or shape: wealthy,wealthy,
large, squarelarge, square
(e)(e) age:age: young, new, oldyoung, new, old
(f)(f) colour:colour: red, blackred, black
(g)(g) material:material: woollen, silkenwoollen, silken
(h)(h) provenance or style: aprovenance or style: a BritishBritish ship, aship, a ParisianParisian dressdress
(p. 125)(p. 125)

 Opinion : anOpinion : an interestinginteresting bookbook
 Dimension: aDimension: a bigbig appleapple
 Age: aAge: a newnew carcar
 Shape: aShape: a squaresquare boxbox
 Color: aColor: a pinkpink hathat
 Origin: anOrigin: an AmericanAmerican carcar
 Material: aMaterial: a woodenwooden boxbox

Characteristics of adverbCharacteristics of adverb
 The most common characteristics of adverb isThe most common characteristics of adverb is
morphological (-ly) (two types of syntactic function, butmorphological (-ly) (two types of syntactic function, but
an adverb need have only one of these:an adverb need have only one of these:
(1)(1) adverbialadverbial
(2)(2) modifier of adjective and adverb.modifier of adjective and adverb.
 Adverb as adverbialAdverb as adverbial
 Three classes of adverbials are establish: adjuncts,Three classes of adverbials are establish: adjuncts,
disjuncts, conjunctsdisjuncts, conjuncts
 ADJUNCTS (gia ngữ/phụ ngữ, trạng ngữ của vị từ)ADJUNCTS (gia ngữ/phụ ngữ, trạng ngữ của vị từ)
 An adjunct is part of aAn adjunct is part of a SentenceSentence and modifies theand modifies the
VerbVerb to show time, manner, place, frequency andto show time, manner, place, frequency and
degree. Eg: It is nearly done. ('Nearly' describesdegree. Eg: It is nearly done. ('Nearly' describes

 In linguistics, aIn linguistics, a disjunctdisjunct is a type of adverbialis a type of adverbial
adjunct that expresses information that is notadjunct that expresses information that is not
considered essential to the sentence it appearsconsidered essential to the sentence it appears
in, but which is considered to be the speaker'sin, but which is considered to be the speaker's
or writer's attitude towards, or descriptiveor writer's attitude towards, or descriptive
statement of, the propositional content of thestatement of, the propositional content of the
sentence. For instance:sentence. For instance:
 HonestlyHonestly, I didn't do it., I didn't do it.
 Fortunately for youFortunately for you, I have it right here., I have it right here.
 In my opinionIn my opinion, the green one is better., the green one is better.

 In linguistics, the termIn linguistics, the term conjunctconjunct has threehas three
distinct uses:distinct uses:
 AA conjunctconjunct is an adjunct that adds informationis an adjunct that adds information
to the sentence that not considered part of theto the sentence that not considered part of the
propositional content (or at least not essential)propositional content (or at least not essential)
but which connects the sentence with previousbut which connects the sentence with previous
parts of the discourse. Rare though this mayparts of the discourse. Rare though this may
be, conjuncts may also connect to the followingbe, conjuncts may also connect to the following
parts of the discourse.parts of the discourse.
It was raining.It was raining. ThereforeTherefore, we didn’t go swimming., we didn’t go swimming.

It was raining.It was raining. ThereforeTherefore, we didn’t go swimming., we didn’t go swimming.
It was sunny.It was sunny. HoweverHowever, we stayed inside., we stayed inside.
You are such a dork.You are such a dork. StillStill, I love you from the, I love you from the
bottom of my heart.bottom of my heart.
 A coordination structure connects two words,A coordination structure connects two words,
phrases or clauses together, usually with thephrases or clauses together, usually with the
help of a coordinating conjunction:help of a coordinating conjunction:
[[GretchenGretchen andand her daughterher daughter] bought [] bought [motor oilmotor oil,,
spark plugsspark plugs, and, and dynamitedynamite].].
Take two of theseTake two of these andand call me in the morningcall me in the morning..