3. Physical Functioning
Types of Aging
Definitions
Primary aging: Gradual and inevitable process
of bodily deterioration throughout life
Secondary aging: Preventable processes from
disease and poor health practices
4. Physical Functioning
Aging and Health
Health difference
Income-related variations in social
environments and individual behavior
Many of the same factors contribute to
economic differences and health habits
Links between social class and secondary
aging complex
5. The Brain and Nervous System
Early Adulthood
Growth spurts in brain
Response inhibition cortex control of limbic
system
New neuronal production
6. The Brain and Nervous System
Early Adulthood
Speed
Gradual loss of speed
Every bodily function affected
Gradual changes at neuronal level
7. The Brain and Nervous System
Early Adulthood
Sex Differences
Men: lower proportion of white matter in left
brain hemisphere than in right
Women: equal portions of gray matter in each
brain hemisphere
8. The Brain and Nervous System
Early Adulthood
____________________ is associated
with individual differences in
performance on verbal tasks for males,
but not for females.
Do you know?
9. The Brain and Nervous System
Early Adulthood
General Physical Skills
Better physical skills on all measures when
compared to older adults
Can you hypothesize what some of these
measures might be?
10. Other Body Systems
Early Adulthood
Declines Physical Functioning
Changes are balanced between physical
demand and physical capacity
Losses that appear later in life start in early
adulthood
11. Other Body Systems
Early Adulthood
Heart and Lungs
Systematic decline with age of Maximum
oxygen uptake (VO2max)
Reflects cumulative effects of sedentary
lifestyle
Aerobic exercise can improve VO2max at
nearly any age
12. Other Body Systems
Early Adulthood
Physical Functioning
Strength and Speed
Strength peaks in the 20s and early 30s
Active lifestyles affect functioning
Reproductive Capacity
Women’s reproductive capacity begins to
drop in mid-20s
Men’s capacity diminishes but remains
intact
14. Physical Functioning
Early Adulthood
Immune System Functioning
Thymus gland and bone marrow produce
B cells and T cells
B cells produce antibodies to fight off
external threats
T cells defend against internal threats,
such as transplanted organs, cancer
cells, and viruses
15. True or False?
One of the key physical changes
over the years of adulthood is
increasing susceptibility to
disease.
16. Physical Functioning
Early Adulthood
Thymus gland: Glandular organ at base of the
neck that produces lymphocytes and aids in
producing immunity; atrophies with age
Central to aging process
Declines in immune system may be in
response to stress or depression
18. Health and Wellness
Healthy Habits and Risk of Death
Only five habits on the previous slide are
independently related to risk of death.
Can you guess which two habits were
unrelated to mortality?
19. Health and Wellness
Health Habits and Personal Factors
Unhealthy Habits
Poorer health habits lead to higher risk
Lack of physical exercise linked to higher
risk of death
Higher BMI in women associated with higher
risks of death
20. Health Habits and Personal Factors
Social Support
Positive Effects
Adequate amounts of social support lower
risk of disease, death, and depression
Effects found across diverse age groups
May boost immune system functioning
21. Health Habits and Personal Factors
A Sense of Control: Perceived Control
Perceived Control
Self-efficacy: Belief in ability to perform some
action or to control behavior or environment
to reach some goal
Internal locus of control: Attribute cause of
many consequences to self, not external
factors
22. Health and Wellness
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
Bacterial STDs: Caused by microorganisms
that can be eradicated with antibiotics
Chlamydia
Gonorrhea
Syphilis
23. Health and Wellness
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
Viral STDs: Caused by viruses and considered
incurable
Genital herpes
Genital warts
HIV/AIDS
24. Health and Wellness
Check Your Knowledge!
Take the Mayo Clinic’s STD Quiz
on page 344.
Were you surprised by your score?
25. Health and Wellness
Sexually Transmitted Diseases Prevention
Prevention: Behavioral changes
Less risky sexual behavior
Use of condoms
26. Health and Wellness
Intimate Partner Abuse: Prevalence
Physical abuse: Physical or other behavior
designed to intimidate or harm an intimate
partner or former partner
Prevalence
What is the rate of female physical abuse?
Let’s find out.
28. Health and Wellness
Intimate Partner Abuse: Causes
Characteristics of abusers and victims
associated with intimate partner abuse
Cultural attitudes
Gender-role prescriptions
Personality traits
Gender differences
30. Health and Wellness
Intimate Partner Abuse: Effects
Effects of abuse
Women may develop anxiety,
depression, shame, and low self-
esteem
Witnessing abuse influences negative
developmental outcomes in children
31. Health and Wellness
Intimate Partner Abuse: Prevention
Prevention
Vigorous law enforcement of abuse
Temporary shelters
Training programs for victims stressing
problem-solving skills to provide
opportunities
Community-wide and school-based
approaches to educate about abuse
32. Stop and Think
Some experts have proposed that
date rape may be more traumatic
than rapes perpetrated by
strangers.
Do you know why?
33. Health and Wellness
Intimate Partner Abuse: Sexual Violence
Sexual violence: Episodes of partner abuse in
which an individual uses force to coerce
another into engaging in sexual acts
Context
Victim gender
Consequences
34. Health and Wellness
Mental Health Problems: Causes
Causes of mental health problems
Age
Expectations and role conflicts
Biological causes
Interaction of biology and environment
35. Health and Wellness
Anxiety and Mood Disorders
Top Two!
Most common mental
disorder are those
associated with fear and
anxiety
Second most common
types are problems
associated with moods
Disorders
Anxiety
Depression
36. Health and Wellness
Personality Disorders
Personality disorders: Inflexible pattern of
behavior that leads to difficulties in social,
educational, and occupational functioning
Behaviors start in mid- or late adolescence
but can remain problematic throughout life
See Table 13.4
37. Health and Wellness
Personality Disorders
Schizophrenia: Mental disorder that makes it
difficult to tell the difference between real
and unreal experiences, to think logically, to
have normal emotional responses, and to
behave normally in social situations
Characterized by false beliefs (delusions)
and false sensory experiences
(hallucinations)
38. Health and Wellness
Substance Use and Abuse Overview
Quick Facts
Peak between 18 and 40
Gender differences
Binge drinking common among college
students
Physical and psychological dependence
and physical tolerance may occur
40. Cognitive Changes
Post-Format Thought
Post-formal thought: Thinking characterized
by an understanding of the relative,
nonabsolute nature of knowledge
Labouvie-Vief, Kohlberg, William Perry
Dialectical thought: Ability to think logically
and critically in order to assess and evaluate
propositions
Basseches
41. Cognitive Changes
Post-Format Thought
Reflective Judgment Model: Stage model
characterized by seven distinct but
developmentally related sets of assumptions
about process of knowing and its acquisition
King and Kitchener
Analyze arguments and underlying
assumptions
46. Post-Secondary Education
Traditional and Nontraditional Students
Let’s list the ways in which traditional
and non-traditional students are alike—
and different.
TraditionalTraditional
47. And so?
Imagine you are assigned to complete a group
project in this class. There are 4 traditional
and 2 non-traditional students in your group.
What are your expectations for each of these
categories of students?
What contributed most to your expectations?
48. Post-Secondary Education
Students with Disabilities
Requirement
Post-secondary education now required
to serve all people with disabilities (IDEA)
Incidence
Performance and perception
49. Gender and the College Experience
Female college students
Higher graduation rates
Study more
Lower entrance exam scores
Lower entrance into prestigious programs
Party less and influenced less by peer
pressure
50. Race and the College Experience
Graduation rates vary across U.S. ethnic
groups
White or Asian American
African American
Hispanic American students
51. Think of elite athletes. When are they in their
prime: gymnastics, swimming, weight-lifting,
baseball, football, golf, and tennis? What
does this tell us about aging?
How aggressively do you protect yourself from
an STD? How would you handle a partner
that balks at using protection or your use of
protection?
Questions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To Ponder
52. Are there indications of bias against students
with disabilities in your college classrooms?
Questions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To PonderQuestions To Ponder
Notas do Editor
See Figure 13.
Social class differences appear to be primary aging, but developmental psychologists consider them to be secondary aging.
Senescence/primary aging
Basic underlying inevitable aging process
Gray hair, changes in visual acuity
Secondary aging
Products of environmental influences, health habits, or disease; neither inevitable nor experienced by all adults
May interact with social class
See Figure 13.1 For benefits of lifestyle changes
Social class differences appear to be primary aging, but developmental psychologists consider them to be secondary aging.
Senescence/primary aging
Basic underlying inevitable aging process
Gray hair, changes in visual acuity
Secondary aging
Products of environmental influences, health habits, or disease; neither inevitable nor experienced by all adults
May interact with social class
Response inhibition helps us to weigh choices more carefully by slowing down and regulating the limbic system – the emotional part of the brain.
Some parts of the brain produce new neurons
Enriched environments seem to help
Growth spurts in the brain
Frontal lobe growth from ages 17 – 22
Response inhibition cortex control of the limbic system from the mid-to late 20s, e.g., impulse control
Gradual changes at neuronal level
Loss of dendrites
Slowing of the firing rate of nerves
Sex Differences
Men have a lower proportion of white matter in the left brain hemisphere than in the right brain
May produce superior spatial perception
Women have equal portions of gray matter in each brain hemisphere
May explain gender differences in emotions
Ratio of gray to white matter is associated with individual differences in performance on verbal tasks for males, but not for females
Gray matter – made up of cell bodies and axon terminals.
White matter contains myelinated axons that connect one neuron to another.
Other differences:
Some listening tasks activate the left hemisphere in men and the right hemisphere in women.
Men and women use different areas of the brain to determine location of sound.
The ratio of gray to white matter is associated with individual differences in performance on verbal tasks for males, but not for females.
Better physical skills on all measures when compared to older adults
Stronger
Faster
Better immune systems
Better eyesight
Quicker adaptation
Table 13.2 represents primary aging summary of changes in physical functioning
However, losses may not be discernable for several years
See Figure 13.2
Heart and Lungs
Maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max): reflects the ability of the body to take in and transport oxygen to body organs
Maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max)
1% per year decline while exercising beginning between 35 and 40.
Decline in heart function may reflect the cumulative effects of a sedentary lifestyle.
Strength and Speed
Longitudinal study of men showed a loss of grip strength over a 9 year period
Strength peaks in the 20’s and early 30’s
However, younger adults are also more active, affecting strength and speed
Fertility problems in women are seen as part of the normal aging process.
Because men have the capacity to be fertile throughout life, fertility problems in men are associated with disease or abnormal developmental process.
These data from Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging show both cross sectional data (dots) and longitudinal (line) for grip strength among men. Once again there is striking agreement between two sets of data.
B cells
Produce antibodies to fight off external threats
T cells
Defend against internal threats, such as transplanted organs, cancer cells, and viruses
Decline in number and efficiency with age
True
Central to aging process
Largest in adolescence, then shrinks
Lower functioning leads to less-effective T cells
Declines in immune system may be primary aging or may be secondary aging in response to stress or depression.
7 healthy habits initially identified by longitudinal research (1965-1983)
Alameda County Study – major longitudinal study of health habits. Data collected in 1965, 1974, and 1983.
Snacking and eating breakfast
Alameda County Study – major longitudinal study of health habits. Data collected in 1965, 1974 and 1983.
BMI –
Poorer health habits lead to higher risk of mortality, disease, and disability
body mass index.
Additional research links lack of physical exercise and lower risk of death
Higher BMI (Body Mass Index: weight to height ratio) numbers in women associated with lower risks of death
Used data from social network index link between social connections and physical hardiness
Optimism versus pessimism
Internal locus of control: attribute cause of many consequences to self, not external factors
Optimism may also boost the immune system
Pessimism appears especially problematic over age 45
Ability to make realistic attributions important to health
About equally distribution among men and women, but women more susceptible to long-term damage from infection
Significant decline in prevalence increased dramatically since 2002, largely confined to men
Chlamydia—transmitted through intimate genital contact
Women three times as likely as men to suffer from it but can remain symptom-free
Unfortunately undiagnosed chlamydia can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease and infertility
Gonorrhea
Declined in recent years
But new strains more resistant to antibiotics
Causes long-term damage to reproductive systems
Syphilis
Can lead to serious mental disorders and death
African American rates remain high
Genital Herpes
Acquired through intercourse or oral sex
20-30% of adults affected
Periodic attacks
Genital Warts
Caused by human papillomavirus
Visible symptoms are warts
New vaccine may be effective
HIV/AIDS
Over one million cases in U.S.
Over 20 million cases in sub-Saharan Africa
Transmitted through exchange of bodily fluids
Male homosexual rates remain high
STDs more common among 15-24 year olds than any other group
Risky sexual behaviors include multiple partners and lack of protection.
Intimate Partner Abuse – physical acts or other behaviors intended to intimidate or harm an intimate partner.
Intimates are couples who date, cohabitate, or are engaged, married, or former partners.
When men and women equally likely to push, slap, or kick partner, women are more likely to be injured
See Figure 13.4
Prevalence
4-5:1000 women; 1:1000 men injured
Hispanic women have higher rates of abuse
Critical factor may be poverty, not race
Rates for gay men and lesbian women probably about 25% but may be underreported
Data on physical abuse are based WHO International Survey of medical records
Cultural attitudes
Women are regarded as property
Gender-role prescriptions
High in Japanese women, based on belief that men are absolute authorities over wives and children
Personality traits
Same cluster of traits in heterosexual and homosexual abusers
Tendency toward irrational jealousy
Control of relationship
Sudden mood swings
Quick temper
Aggressive men and unemployed men are frequent abusers
Characteristics of abusers and victims associated with intimate partner abuse
More likely to have been abused as children
Young women between 16 and 24 more likely to be abused than older women
May reflect less ability of young women to act independently of the abuser
May be more likely to be caring for young infants
May be undereducated
Alcohol and drug problems common with abusers and victims.
Feelings intensify if the victim believes they are trapped in the situation.
Feelings intensify if the victim believes they are trapped in the situation.
Victims often believe they should have been able to prevent the assault
¾ of incidents occur in context of some kind of relationship
14-25% of women affected; 3% of men are victims
Date rape often premeditated
Can cause sexual dysfunctions and post-traumatic stress disorder
Young adulthood high incidence
Highest expectations and highest levels of role conflict and role strain may occur then
May lead to anxiety and depression
Researchers are focusing on biological causes
Mental illness runs in families
Disturbances in specific brain functions occur
Interaction of biology and the environment
Roles have to be learned – spouse, worker, parent.
Anxiety
Phobias – irrational fear of an object, person, place, or situation
Learned through association
Therapeutic interventions involve unlearning the association
May be “free-floating”
Depression
Rates higher in early adulthood than in adolescence or middle age
May result from intimacy issues and loneliness
Can be a recurrent problem
May relate to stressful breakups
Surveys suggest as many as 50% of college students engage in binge drinking.
Characterized by false beliefs (delusions) and false sensory experiences (hallucinations)
Delusions of grandeur
Delusions of persecution
Auditory hallucinations, such as hearing voices
Often debilitating but may be helped by antipsychotic medications
May be helped by antipsychotic medications
See Table 13.2
See Table 13.2
Post-Formal Thought: relativistic thinking characterized by an understanding of the relative, nonabsolute nature of knowledge
Labouvie-Vief , Kohlberg, William Perry
Later thinking reflects thinking skills that are more relative and reflect complex thought
Contextual validity – learning how to solve problems associated with social roles and occupations
Dialectical Thought:
Basseches – dialectical thought
Attempts to describe fundamental process of change and the dynamic relationships through which change occurs
Different kind of thinking than formal operations proposes
Theories on post-formal thought still speculative with little current empirical research
Continuity and change characterize intelligence in early adulthood
Werner Shaie – Seattle Longitudinal Study.
See Figure 13.5
IQ scores
Remain stable across early adulthood
Seattle Longitudinal study suggests that intelligence test scores rise slightly in adulthood before dropping as adults reach age 60
Crystallized Intelligence
Ability to do daily tasks, such as read a newspaper
Depends heavily on education and experience
Remains steady throughout early and middle adulthood
Fluid Intelligence
Speed measures of abstract reasoning
Steady decline throughout lifespan
Results from Seattle Longitudinal Study show both cross-sectional and longitudinal data for a measure of overall intellectual skill (average score = 50)
See Figure 13.6
Developmental Impact
More promotions
Less unemployment
Professional field openings
Vocational aspiration increases
Enhanced internal locus of control
Social impact
More socialization opportunities
Advances in moral and social reasoning
Increased capacity for empathy
College completion rates vary considerably from one racial group to another. These figures represent percentage of students who complete a degree within six years of taking their first course as a degree-seeking student.
Traditional
Enroll in school full-time directly after graduation
Now only one-quarter of enrollees
Half obtain a degree within 6 years
Traditional students more often pursue bachelor degrees
Non-traditional students more often enroll in two-year colleges
Less often complete degrees than traditional students
Non-traditional students tend to have less of a social network on campus, thus support from the institution is critical for successful management of the conflicting demands of school, family, and work
Non-traditional
May delay entry into college
Independent from parents
Employed full time
Enrolled part time
Have children
Possess a GED rather than a high school diploma
College must provide modifications to facilities and special education services
Now about 9% of college population
Receive lower course grades than their peers
Perceive college faculty to be inhospitable
60% of college students are now female
Men party more and may be more influenced by peer pressure and behavior
White or Asian-American students have higher rates of college completion within six years
For African- and Hispanic American students
Strong sense of ethnic identity is associated with persistence and academic performance
May help by providing belonging to the college community
Cognitive and social development for African-American students appears higher in historically black colleges than in predominantly white schools