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2.1 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING BY IVAN PAVLOV
Ivan Pavlov was born in Russia and spent most of his time studying physiology
(study of the functions of organisms and their parts such as the physiology of the
liver). He was noted for his work on the physiology of digestion and was awarded the
Nobel Prize for work in this area. However, he only became interested in psychology
in 1900 at the age of 50. In his classic experiment with dogs, he measured the saliva
secreted by the animals when food was given (see Figure 2.1).
Figure 2.1: Dog with tube inserted in its cheek. When the dog salivates, the saliva is collected in the
test tube and its quantity is recorded on the rotating drum
[source: Great Experiments in Psychology. p.5 by H.H. Garrett, 1951. New York: Appleton-
Century-Crofts]
Rotating drum
Ivan Pavlov
1849-1936
Upon completion of this module, you should be able to:
 Define what is behaviourism
 Explain classical conditioning
 Explain operant conditioning
 Give everyday examples of classical conditioning in daily life
 Identify the characteristics of Thorndike’s theory of learning
 Describe the principles of operant conditioning
 Discuss the application of operant conditioning in teaching and learning

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Bell
Step 1: Before Conditioning
He gave a hungry dog a bowl of food. The dog is hungry, the dog sees the food and
the dog salivates.
Unconditioned Stimulus (US) Unconditioned Response (UR)
This is a natural sequence of events, an unconscious, uncontrolled, and unlearned
relationship. Stimulus means something that is given to initiate a response. So
‘Unconditioned Stimulus’ and ‘Unconditioned Response’ simply means that the
stimulus and the response are naturally connected. They just came that way, hard
wired into the brain of the organism. "Unconditioned" means that this connection was
already present in the dog before Pavlov began his experiments. For example, when
you see someone eating something sour such as pickled fruit, you tend to swallow
your saliva. Thus, an unconditioned stimulus (pickled fruit) elicited an unconditioned
response (swallowing your saliva).
Step 2: During Conditioning
Next, Pavlov, presented the hungry dog with food and simultaneously rang a bell, and
the dog salivated.
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Unconditioned Response (UR)
Conditioning Stimulus (CS)
This action (food and bell ringing) was done at several meals. Every time the dog sees
the food, the dog also hears the bell. "Unconditioned" means unlearned, untaught,
pre-existing, already-present-before-we-got-there. "Conditioning" just means the
opposite. Pavlov was trying to associate, connect, bond or link something new with
the old relationship. He wanted this new thing (the bell) to elicit the same response.
Step 3: After Conditioning
This time Pavlov rang only the bell at mealtime, but he did not show any food. Guess
what the dog did. Right.
Food Salivation
Food
Salivation

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Conditioning Stimulus (CS) Conditioning Response (CR)
The bell elicited the same response as the sight of the food gets. Over repeated trials,
the dog has LEARNED to associate the bell with the food. The bell has the power to
produce the same response as the food. In other words, the dog has been conditioned
to salivate when hearing the bell.
Conclusion
This is the essence of Classical Conditioning. You start with two things that are
already connected with each other (food and salivation). Then you pair a third thing
(bell) with the conditioned stimulus (food) over several trials. Eventually, this third
thing may become so strongly associated, that it has acquired the power to produce
the old behaviour. The organism is conditioned to respond to the third thing or
stimulus.
Pavlov extended his experiment by using bells of different tones. Surprisingly, the
dog still salivated when it heard the different tones. The dog responded even though
the tones of the bells were different or nearly the same. In other words the dog is
capable of generalisation, and able to generalise across different tones. For example,
when driving and you hear the sound of a siren behind you and you immediately
move to the side to give way. You do not discriminate whether it is the sound of the
fire-truck, the ambulance or the police (which may be different) but you react in the
same way. In other words, you have generalised that any sound of the siren, you will
respond similarly.
Pavlov also found that when the tone of the bell that was closer to the sound of the
original bell, the dog salivated. When the tone of the bell was very different from the
sound of the original bell, the dog salivated less frequently. In other words the dog is
capable of discrimination, and able to differentiate among the different tones. The dog
is responds to one stimulus and not to another stimulus. However, when Pavlov
continued ringing the bell and after many trials it was not followed by food, the dog
gradually did not salivate. In other words, extinction took place and the dog did not
salivate after sometime when it realised that food was not forthcoming.
2.2 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN DAILY LIFE
 The smell of fresh bread baking makes my mouth water. This is probably the
result of Classical conditioning. In the past the smell of the fresh bread
immediately preceded putting a piece in my mouth, which causes salivation.
Through the mechanism of Classical conditioning the smell itself comes to
elicit salivation.
 After the bad car accident Jeffri had last year, he would cringe and break into a
sweat at the sound of squealing brakes. This is Classical conditioning. The
cringing, which is an unconditioned response to pain or fear, was produced by
the accident and its accompanying pain. That accident was probably preceded
by the sound of squealing brakes, which became a conditioned stimulus for the
conditioned response of cringing.
Bell Salivation

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 To treat alcoholics, we sometimes put a chemical in their drinks that makes
them sick. Eventually, the taste of alcohol becomes aversive. This is Classical
conditioning. The chemical that makes the drinker sick is being paired with
the taste of alcohol so that the alcohol itself becomes the conditioned stimulus
for being sick.
 Classical conditioning works with advertising. For example, many product ads
prominently feature attractive young women. The young women
(Unconditioned Stimulus) naturally elicit a favorable, mildly aroused feeling
(Unconditioned Response) in most men.
2.3 FATHER OF BEHAVIOURISM
John B. Watson was born in 1878 and grew up in
South Carolina in the United States. He entered Furman
University at the age of 16 and graduates with a master’s
degree. Later, he studied at the University of Chicago and
earned his Ph.D. in psychology in 1903. He began teaching
psychology at John Hopkins University in 1908. In 1913, he
gave a seminal lecture at Columbia University titled
Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, which essentially
detailed the behaviourist position. According to Watson,
psychology should be the science of observable behavior.
Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the
scientific value of its data. Watson remained at John Hopkins
University until 1920. He had an affair with Rosalie Rayner,
his graduate assistant. He divorced in first wife, and was asked
by the university to resign his position. Watson later married
Rayner and the two remained together until her death in 1935.
After leaving his academic position, Watson began working for an advertising agency
where he remained until he retired in 1945. He spent his last years living a reclusive
life on a farm in Connecticut and died in 1958.
Watson who subscribed to classical conditional developed by Ivan Pavlov,
was dubbed “The Father of Behaviourism” and strongly believed that human emotion
(i.e. fear, rage and love) was the product of both heredity and experience. Through the
conditioning process, these three basic emotions become attached to different things
for different people. He strongly believed that any human being can be conditioned to
do anything regardless of their attitudes, abilities or experiences. His extreme belief is
reflected in this famous (or infamous) statement he made in 1926:
Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own
specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take
ACTIVITY
Classical conditioning is a pervasive form of influence in our
world. Give examples of classical conditioning in daily life,
in the workplace, in child rearing practices and in the
classroom.
work place
J.B. Watson
(1878-1958)

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any one at random and train him to become any type of
specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, merchant, chief, and
yes, even beggarman and thief, regardless of his talents,
penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his
ancestors (1926, 10).
Watson set the stage for behaviorism, which soon rose to dominate psychology. While
behaviorism began to lose its hold after 1950, many of the concepts and principles are
still widely used today. Conditioning and behavior modification are still widely used
in therapy and behavioral training to help clients change problematic behaviors and
develop new skills.
2.4 WATSON’S EXPERIMENTS WITH LITTLE ALBERT
To demonstrate how inborn emotional reflexes become conditioned to neutral
stimuli, Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) performed an experiment on an 11-month-
old infant Albert adopting Pavlov’s approach (discussed earlier). In the beginning of
the experiment, the infant was shown a white rat (see Figure 2.2).
He reached out and tried to touch the animal. Later, whenever Albert reached
out and tried to touch the rat, Watson took a hammer and struck a steel bar behind the
infant, making a loud noise. Obviously, Albert got a fright and jumped and fell
forward. Again, he tried to touch the rat and the bar was struck, making a loud noise.
Albert jumped violently and cried. A week later when Albert came into contact with
the rat he was more cautious and withdrew his hand. He had developed a strong fear
of the rat and began to cry. He tried to raise himself and crawled away rapidly. Albert
had LEARNED to fear the white rat because of its association with the loud noise.
Before Conditioning
White Rat No Fear
Unconditioned Stimulus (US) Unconditioned Response (UR)
During Conditioning
White Rat
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Albert cries and avoids touching
Figure 2.2
Albert and the white
rat

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Loud Noise Unconditioned Response (UR)
Conditioning Stimulus (CS)
After Conditioning
White Rat Fear
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Conditioned Response (CR)
It was also shown that Albert’s fear generalised to a variety of other objects
such as a rabbit, fur coat, and even a Santa Claus mask. In other words, any object
that was furry brought fear to the infant. The experiment by Watson showed that our
emotional reactions can be rearranged through classical conditioning. Watson
demonstrated that an emotion such as fear could be ‘transferred’ to an organism that
originally that not have such a fear. The finding is significant because it implies that if
fears are learned, it should be possible to unlearn or extinguish them. Unfortunately,
Watson and Rayner never removed Albert’s fears because his mother removed him
from the hospital where the experiment was being conducted shortly after fear was
instilled.
2.5 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN THE CLASSROOM
It is the first day in school and suddenly Suzy
hears her teacher Ms. Lim yell “Keep Quiet”
at the top of her voice. Suzy was startled and
terrified and started to cry. In the next few
days, whenever Ms. Lim entered the class she
cried. She had associated the presence of Ms.
Lim with fear. In other words, she has been
conditioned to respond by crying whenever
encountering Ms. Lim even though she had
not yelled, “Keep Quiet”.
 Stimulus Generalisation – Suzy has learned to associate fear with Ms Lim.
Could that fear generalise to other teachers? Stimulus generalisation occurs
when the organism responds to stimuli that are similar or related. If Suzy cried
each time any teacher (other than Ms. Lim) entered the class, than Suzy has
generalised. For example, in Watson’s experiments, Little Albert avoided any
SELF-CHECK
a) Explain how a behaviour can be conditioned
b) What is meant by generalisation, discrimination and extinction
in in classical conditioning?
c) What is behaviourism?

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Figure 2.3 Thorndike’s puzzle box
thing that was furry indicating that the child has generalised fear to stimuli that
is similar or related to the white rat.
 Stimulus Discrimination – When other teachers enter the class, Suzy does
not cry but when she encounters Ms. Lim she cries. Apparently, her classically
conditioned response seems to be limited to one stimulus; Ms. Lim. It appears
that Suzy is showing signs of stimulus discrimination.
 Extinction – Suzy has associated Ms. Lim with the yelling of “Keep Quiet”
which terrified her. However, if the stimulus (yelling “Keep Quiet”) is not
applied and the response has not generated over a period of time, then the
probability of conditioned behaviour (crying) may decay. If Suzy had not
heard Ms. Lim yell “Keep Quiet” for some time, it is possible that crying
whenever Ms. Lim appears would gradually become extinct.
2.6 CONNECTIONISM - EDWARD L. THORNDIKE
Edward Thorndike (1874 – 1949), whose doctoral thesis entitled Animal Intelligence:
An Experimental Study of the Associative Process in Animals in 1898, formed the
basis for his learning theories. To Thorndike the most basic form of learning was
trial-and-error learning which was based on his experiments which involved putting
a hungry animal in a puzzle box (see
Figure 2.3). The animal (he used cats)
would attempt to escape to get at the food
outside the box. Pressing on the pedal
would enable the animal to escape.
Before escaping, the animal would have
to engage in a series of complex
responses. The animal would squeeze
through an opening and claw at anything
it reaches. The animal had to perform in a
certain way before it was allowed to leave
the box.
The animal claws all over the box
in an impulsive struggle to get out of the confinement. In the process presses the pedal
and the door opens. It gets out and eats the food. The same cat was put in the box
over and over again. Thorndike noted the time it took the animal to solve the problem
as a function of the number of trials or opportunities. The time it took to solve the
problem systematically decreased as the number of trials increased. In other words,
the more opportunities the animal had, the faster it solved the problem. The animal
has made a connection between the proper response and the food the cat received
(Stimulus-Response or S-R connection). Based on his experiments, Thorndike
concluded that learning is incremental. In other words, learning occurs in very small
systematic steps rather than in huge jumps.
Based on his experiments, Thorndike proposed the following theories of
learning:
Food

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 The Law of Readiness
The law of readiness states that when an organism is ready to act, it will do so.
When it is not ready to act, forcing it to act will be annoying. In other words,
when someone is ready to perform act, to do is satisfying while not doing so is
annoying.
 The Law of Exercise
The law of exercise states that the strength of a connection between a stimulus
and a response is determined by how often the connection is established. In
other words, maintaining connection between the stimulus and response
strengthens the connection (Law of Use). The connection between the
stimulus and response is weakened when practice is discontinued (Law of
Disuse).
 The Law of Effect
The law of effect states that the strength of a connection between a stimulus
and a response is influenced by the consequence of a response. For example, if
a response is followed by a satisfying state of affairs, the strength of the
connection is increased. If a response is followed by an annoying state of
affairs, the strength of the connection is decreased.
2.7 IMPLICATIONS OF THORNDIKE’S THEORIES
 Thorndike developed the idea of connectionism. He believed that connections
formed between a stimulus and a response (S-R) is the essence of intellectual
development. People of higher intellect formed more bonds between stimuli
and response and formed them more easily than people of lower ability.
 Complex ideas should be broken down into pre-requisite concepts. Positive
reinforcement should be applied as these concepts are learned so that they can
be applied to more complex, higher-level learning activities.
 Transfer of learning.
o The degree of transfer between initial and later learning depends on the
match between elements across the two events.
o Transfer depends on the presence of identical elements in the original
and new learning situations.
o Transfer is always specific and never general.
o Transfer from one school task to a highly similar task (near transfer),
and from school subject to non-school settings (far transfer), could be
facilitated by teaching knowledge and skills in school subjects that
have elements identical to activities encountered in the initial context.
SELF-CHECK
a) How does Thorndike explain learning?
b) What are the implications of Thorndike’s theories on teaching
and learning? Give specific examples.

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2.8 OPERANT CONDITIONING BY B.F. SKINNER
Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born in the small Pennsylvania town of
Susquehanna. He obtained his masters and doctorate in psychology from Harvard
University. He taught at the University of Minnesota and in 1945 moved to become
the chairman of the psychology department at Indiana University. In 1948, he was
invited to teach and do research at Harvard University where he remained for the rest
of this life. He was an active researcher and guided hundreds of doctoral candidates as
well as writing many books. His most famous book was Walden II, which is a
fictional account of a community run by his behaviourist principles.
B.F. Skinner, made his reputation by testing Watson's
and Pavlov’s theories in the laboratory. He rejected the notion
that organisms are passive and have no control whether to act
or not to act. He developed the theory of operant
conditioning, which states that we choose to behave in a
certain way because particular behaviour brings about certain
consequences (Skinner, 1950). For example, if your girlfriend
gives you a kiss when you give her flowers, you are likely to
give her flowers when you want a kiss. You are acting in
expectation of a certain reward. However, Skinner did not
agree that emotions or feelings play any part in determining
behaviour. Our behaviour is determined by the pleasant or
unpleasant consequence of that behaviour.
SKINNER’S EXPERIMENTS
To demonstrate operant conditioning in the laboratory, a hungry rat was
placed in a box like the one shown in Figure 2.4, which is called
the “Skinner’s Box”. Inside the box was a bar connected to a
pellet (food) dispenser. Left alone in the box the rat moves
about exploring. At some point in the exploration, it presses the bar and a small food
pellet is released (Skinner, 1954). The rat eats and soon presses the bar again. The
food reinforces bar-pressing, and the rate of pressing increases dramatically.
Figure 2.4 Skinner’s box
B.F. Skinner
1904-1990
Electric
grid
Food cup
To shock
generator
Dispenser tube
Pellet dispenser

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REINFORCEMENT
What happens if the rat is not given any more food pellets? Skinner, disconnected the
food dispenser. When the rat pressed the bar, no food was released. The rate of bar-
pressing was less frequent and finally it diminished. That is, the operant response
undergoes extinction with nonreinforcement just as in classical conditioning.
Next, Skinner connected back the pellet dispenser. Pressing the bar again provided the
rat with food pellets. The behaviour of bar-pushing ‘popped’ right back. In fact, the
rat took a lesser time to press the bar compared to the first time it was put in the box.
So, the rat has learned that if it pressed the bar, food will be released.
Skinner varied the experiment by linking the release of food pellets with light. For
example, the food would only be presented when the bar is pressed while the light is
on but not when the light is off. Guess what happened! The rat only pressed the bar
when the light was on. The light has served as a discriminative stimulus that controls
response. The rat is able to discriminate between pressing the bar with the light and
pressing the bar without light (Huitt and Hummel, 1998).
Based on this experiment, Skinner introduced the word “operant”. It simply means
that the behaviour “operates” on the environment – the rat’s pressing the bar produces
or gains access to the food pellets. In classical conditioning, the animal is passive; it
merely waits for stimuli. In operant conditioning, the animal is active; its own
behaviour brings on important consequences or results (Skinner, 1998). Thus, operant
conditioning increases the likelihood of a response by following its occurrence with
reinforcer.
PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING
Thus, reinforcement can be defined as any event that increases the probability
of a response. Skinner distinguished between positive reinforcement and negative
reinforcement, as well as punishment.
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
A behaviour reinforced by a pleasant consequence increases the probability
of that behaviour occurring in the future.
A behaviour no longer followed by a pleasant consequence results in a
decreased probability of that behaviour occurring in the future.
PUNISHMENT

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Positive Reinforcement: A positive reinforcer is a stimulus that increases the
probability of a particular behaviour occurring in the future. For example, water is a
positive reinforcer for getting a thirsty organism to behave in a particular way. The
term reward is sometimes used as a synonym for positive reinforcement (Huitt and
Hummel, 1997.
Examples:
a) Amy completes her homework so that she can watch her favourite programme
on TV. There is high probability that she will always complete her homework
(behaviour) so that she can watch TV (reinforcer)
b) Factory workers who are efficient are given bonuses. There is a high
probability that factory workers will strive to be more efficient (behaviour) so
that they will be given bonuses (reinforcer).
Negative Reinforcement: A negative reinforcer is a stimulus when removed
increases the probability of a particular behaviour occurring in the future. Refer to
Skinner’s Box: Figure 2.4. An electric was introduced and the rat jumped around.
However, when it pressed the bar, the electric shock was switched off. Guess what
happened! The rat pressed the bar (behaviour) more frequently to avoid the pain or
discomfort from the electric shock.
Examples:
a) A mother lifts (behaviour) her crying baby because she cannot bear to hear her
child cry (reinforcer).
b) When you enter a car, you put on the safety belt (behaviour) because you want
the sound of the buzzer (reinforcer) to stop.
Punishment: Punishment is not the same as negative reinforcement. The objective of
negative reinforcement is to increase the probability of a particular behaviour
occurring. Punishment has the opposite effect; it decreases the probability of a
behaviour occurring. For example, if the rat is given an electric shock every time it
presses the bar (behaviour), the frequency of the behaviour occurring will be reduced
and finally diminish.
Examples:
a) Farid refuses to help his mother wash the dishes and he is not allowed to play
football.
b) Any student who makes noise in class will have recess time reduced.
SELF-CHECK
a) What is the difference between positive reinforcement and
negative reinforcement?
b) How is negative reinforcement different from punishment?

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The above is a common problem in many classrooms. The functional nature of
reinforcement theory has to be understood. It explains why the theory sometimes
appears to be incorrect. To understand if you have used positive reinforcement
(reward), you must observe its effect. If the consequence increases the behavior you
want to increase, you have introduced positive reinforcement. If the consequence
decreases the behavior you want to decrease, then you have a punishment. Most
teachers have had the unfortunate experience of Mrs. Ragu. They have persisted in
giving a consequence of punishment and the kid keeps doing the bad thing. If the
behavior does not increase or decrease the way you want it to, then you need to
rethink your rewards and punishments. The main point of reinforcement theory is that
consequences influence behavior. Rewarding consequences increase behavior.
Punishing consequences decrease behavior. No consequences extinguish a behavior.
Finally, a consequence is known by its function (how it operates).
Reinforcement Theory in the Classroom
Then Bala interrupts the class, Mrs. Ragu stops the class, tells Bala he's a naughty boy
who broke Rule 15 and now must go to the principle's office. Ouch! That hurt. Mrs. Ragu
is convinced that when Bala comes back to class, he will not interrupt. He surely will
want to avoid the wicked punishment. Well, guess what happens. Bala comes back to
class and continues interrupting the lesson, Mrs. Ragu whacks him and Bala keeps on
interrupting. Mrs. Ragu is totally confused and goes back to the teacher's lounge
complaining about the stupid reinforcement theory.
Saleha interrupts the class. Mrs. Ragu stops the class,
tells Saleha she's a naughty girl who broke Rule 15 and
now must go to the principle's office. Ouch! That really
hurt. Saleha returns and she no longer interrupts. Mrs.
Ragu then goes to the teacher's lounge and sings the
praises of this really great theory. Do not forget that the
other kids in the class are watching this event with great
interest.
ACTIVITY
A five-year old child throws a temper tantrum in front of his
Parents. He embarrasses them and they give him rewards such
as attention, toys, candy, or whatever. Now when this child
goes to school and throws a temper tantrum, he is cruelly
disappointed when the teacher scolds and punishes him.
a) Explain the underlying principles of the above event.
b) What do you think the child may learn in the long run?

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2.9 SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
The reinforcement theory was taken a step further by introducing variation in the
typical operant conditioning situation (Huitt and Hummel, 1998). What will happen
when the schedule of reinforcement is varied according to time or frequency? For
example, instead of rewarding a particular behaviour every time it occurs, the
behaviour is rewarded every 2 minutes; i.e. reinforcement is scheduled or
predetermined. Many different reinforcement schedules have been studied, but most
common are as follows:
 FIXED RATIO (FR): According to this schedule, reinforcement occurs after
a fixed number of responses (behaviour). The ratio 5:1 means that after every
5 times the response (behaviour) is exhibited it is reinforced (rewarded) once.
For example, say the rat presses the bar 3 times, it gets a goodie. Or 5 times or
20 times. It is like the ‘piece rate’ method in the clothing industry. You get
paid so much for to many shirts.
 VARIABLE RATIO (VR): This schedule is similar to the Fixed Ratio. The
difference is that the ratio is not fixed but variable. In other words, the ratio is
changed according to the responses. For example, you may start with
reinforcing every 3 times the response (behaviour) is exhibited; than every 5
times the response (behaviour) is exhibited and so on.
 FIXED INTERVAL (FI): According to this schedule, reinforcement (reward)
is given at the specified time. For example, if the time is fixed as 2 minutes;
the behaviour or response is reinforced (rewarded) after 2 minutes. No further
reinforcement will occur until 2 minutes has passed. Once it has elapsed, the
first response (behaviour) made will be reinforced.
 VARIABLE INTERVAL (VI): This schedule is similar to the Fixed Internal.
The difference is that the interval is not fixed but variable. In other words, the
interval may be changed according to the responses. For example, you may
start with reinforcing every 20 seconds the response (behaviour) is exhibited;
than every 30 seconds the response (behaviour) is exhibited and so on.
2.10 SHAPING BEHAVIOUR
Using a schedule of reinforcement, complex behaviours of various organisms can be
shaped. Shaping is a method of successive approximation which involves reinforcing
behaviour that is vaguely similar to the behaviour desired (Skinner, 1954). The
procedure of shaping involves administering rewards for response that are not the
required terminal response but that approximate what the experimenter desires. An

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organism is reinforced every time it makes a move in the desired direction until it has
learned the desired response, and then not reinforcing it again (Skinner, . By
reinforcing only successively closer approximations to the desired behaviour, it is
possible to train an organism to engage in behaviour so complex that would never
ordinarily appear in the organism’s repertoire.
Shaping a Simple Behaviour:
A three year old child was afraid to go down a slide.
The father picked him up and put him at the end of the
slide and asked him if he was okay. He was asked to
jump and he did and was praised by the father. Next,
the father picked the child and put him a foot or so up
the slide and asked him if he was okay, and asked him
to slide down. He did. So far so good! The father did
this again and again, each time moving him a little up
the slide. Eventually, he put the child at the top of the
slide and he could slide all the way down and jump off.
A great deal of human behaviour is modified directionally in small steps by
reinforcement. It has often been observed, for example, that as previously reinforcing
activities become habitual and less rewarding, they tend to be modified. For example,
a motorcyclist derives some considerable reinforcement from the sensation of turning
a sharp corner at high speed – but eventually the sensation diminishes and the
excitement becomes less. And perhaps, too, as the reinforcement begins to decrease,
his speed increases, imperceptibly but progressively. This is a clear illustration of
shaping effected through the outcomes of behaviour (Lefrancois, 1982). In the
classroom, peer approval or disapproval, sometimes communicated in a very subtle,
nonverbal way, can drastically alter a student’s behaviour. The classroom ‘clown’
would probably not continue to be a ‘clown’ if no one paid any attention to her.
Indeed, he might never have been shaped into a ‘clown’ had his audience not
reinforced him in the first place.
ACTIVITY
a) Identify the schedule of reinforcement represented by
following examples:
 Joe gets his salary weekly
 Susie gives Zack a kiss when he rubs her back for an
average of 10 minutes
 Bill continues to play at a gambling machine
 Rosli gets a bonus after every ten items produced.
b) Give other examples from daily life where schedules of
reinforcement have been used to shape or modify
behaviour.

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2.11 APPLYING OPERANT CONDITIONING IN THE CLASSROOM
Biehler and Snowman (1986) in their book Psychology Applied to Teaching,
suggested the following classroom practices based on the principles of operant
conditioning.
 When students are dealing with factual material, do your best to give
FEEDBACK frequently, specifically and quickly.
o After giving a problem, go over the correct answer immediately
afterward.
o Have pupils team up and give each other feedback.
o Meet with students in small groups so that you can give each pupil
more individual feedback.
o When you assign reading or give a lecture or demonstration, have a
short self-corrected quiz or an informal Q&A session immediately
afterward.
 When older students are dealing with complex and meaningful material,
DELAYED FEEDBACK may be more appropriate
o Hand back and discuss all exams even though they may have sat for
the exam two weeks ago.
o Give comments are papers written by students besides a grade or
marks.
o After having submitted an assignment you could ask your students the
following: “If you realised after you completed your work that you had
made a mistake, make a note of it and mention how you would correct
it if you were to do the assignment over again now. Then we can see if
your evaluation agrees with mine”.
 Use SEVERAL KINDS OF REINFORCERS so that each retains its
effectiveness.
o When a student gives a correct answer, makes a good point in class
discussion or doe something helpful, say things like: “Good”. “That’s
right”. “Terrific”. “Great”. “Very interesting point”. “I hadn’t thought
of that”. “That was big help”.
o Walk over to stand near and smile encouragingly at a pupil who seems
to be working industriously.
 Use awareness of EXTINCTION to reduce the frequency of undesirable forms
of behaviour.
o If a student exhibits undesirable behaviour to arouse attention, pay no
attention and continue with the lesson.
o If a student says something undesirable in class discussion, do not
comment, and immediately call on someone else.

16
 Using different SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT, encourage persistent
and permanent learning.
o When students first try a new skill or type of learning, praise almost
any genuine attempt, even though it may be inaccurate. Then, as they
become more skilful, reserve your praise only for correct and accurate
answers.
o Avoid a set pattern or predictable way of commenting on student work.
o Make favourable remarks at unpredictable intervals.
 Use reinforcement to MOTIVATE students to learn material that is not
intrinsically interesting.
o Announce to students that if they complete the ‘boring’ task, they will
be rewarded with something they like to do. e.g. read a book of their
choice, work on an art or craft project, work on homework for another
class.
o Make a contract with students on the amount of work to be completed
before they are entitled to the reward.
o Withhold reinforcement and calling attention to rewards that will
follow completion of a task. If that does not work, consider the
possibility of taking away a privilege or resorting to punishment.
 Use the principles of PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION. Skinner argued that
in a typical classroom situation, a teacher cannot supply reinforcement quickly
enough or often enough. He recommended the use of teaching machines or
programmed instruction.
o State clearly what is to learned i.e. the terminal behaviour (e.g. to be
able to compare X and Y)
o Break down the facts, concepts and principles and arrange them in a
sequence designed to lead the student to the desired end result.
o These series of small linear steps or frames are written to maximise the
likelihood that students will supply the correct answer for each frame.
When students do supply the correct answer for one step or frame, they
are reinforced by discovering they are right and motivated to move on
to the next.
 Use programmed approaches to teaching describing terminal behaviour,
organising what is to be learned, and providing feedback.
o Describe the terminal behaviour using instructional objectives or
learning outcomes (e.g. using Bloom’s Taxonomy of Objectives as a
guide).
o If appropriate, arrange the material to be learned into a series of steps
into an outline of points (e.g. when giving a lecture or demonstration
give students an organised list of points to be covered)
o Provide feedback (e.g. quizzes with feedback on correct answers)

17
ACTIVITY
.
Skinner believed that operant conditioning can even be used to
teach thinking (by conditioning the student to develop
techniques of self-management – for example; paying attention
and studying efficiently), to foster creativity (by including
greater amounts of behaviour and reinforcing what is original),
and to encourage perseverance (by systematically widening the
ratios of reinforcement).
Discuss.
ACTIVITY
.
Read the following situations and state whether they are
examples of classical or operant conditioning.
Gi Give reasons for your decision.
1. In order to punish my cat for sleeping on the sofa, I paired the sound of a
clicker with getting squirted with water. Now the sound of the clicker
causes the animal to get off the sofa.
2. When my son has gone for a week without arguing with his sister, he
gets to choose which favorite activity he wants to engage in on Friday
night
3. In a weight management class, participants earn points for every healthy
meal they eat and every period of exercise they complete. Later these
points result in refunds of their class fees.
4. When I first start teaching about a concept, I'll praise any answer that is
close to the right answer.
5. Each morning when I switch on the radio, my dogs bark and I give them
dog a slice of bread each. After a while, every time I switch on the radio
in the morning, my dogs bark.

18
REFERENCES
 Biehler, D. and Snowman, G. (1986). Psychology of learning applied to
teaching. Newark: Wardsworth
 Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (1997). An introduction to operant (instrumental)
conditioning. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta
State University.
http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/operant.html.
 Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (1998). An overview of the behavioral perspective.
Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University.
http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/behsys/behsys.html.
 Skinner, B.F. (1950). Are theories of learning necessary? Psychological
Review, 57(4), 193-216.
 Skinner, B.F. (1954). The science of learning and the art of teaching. Harvard
Educational Review, 24(2), 86-97.
 Watson, J. (1913). Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it. Psychological
Review, 20, 158-177.
 Watson, J. B. and Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal
of Experimental Psychology. 3(1). 1-14.

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