Gender and crime SOCIOLOGY

Crime and Deviance Chapter 13 105/06/15
IntroductionIntroduction
Official Crime Statistics (OCR) revealed how recorded
crime appears to be a masculine activity (87% of all
recorded crime)
Official Crime Statistics (OCR) revealed how recorded
crime appears to be a masculine activity (87% of all
recorded crime)
Victorians explained women’s conformity with biological
theory, sociologists favour socialisation, social control and
post-modern concept of ‘transgression’.
Victorians explained women’s conformity with biological
theory, sociologists favour socialisation, social control and
post-modern concept of ‘transgression’.
Crime, delinquency and deviance viewed as a (working-
class) “male thing”, that usually ends as they ‘settled
down’.
Crime, delinquency and deviance viewed as a (working-
class) “male thing”, that usually ends as they ‘settled
down’.
However, the growth of laddette behaviour is challenging
the implied links between deviance and masculinity.
However, the growth of laddette behaviour is challenging
the implied links between deviance and masculinity.

Frances HeidensohnFrances Heidensohn
Frances Heidensohn (1985) notes how
female crime was either invisible or
sociologists assumed stereotypical ideas
on females. She suggests 4 reasons:
Frances Heidensohn (1985) notes how
female crime was either invisible or
sociologists assumed stereotypical ideas
on females. She suggests 4 reasons:
Male dominance of offendersMale dominance of offenders
Male domination of sociologyMale domination of sociology
Vicarious identification (what interests male sociologists is
exciting [male] rebellion)
Vicarious identification (what interests male sociologists is
exciting [male] rebellion)
Sociological theorizingSociological theorizing

Gender and CrimeGender and Crime
3 questions we need to address in order to ascertain if women
are less criminal than men:
3 questions we need to address in order to ascertain if women
are less criminal than men:
Are there
differences in the
amount of crime
committed by men
and women?
Are there
differences in the
amount of crime
committed by men
and women?
Are there
differences in the
kinds of crime
committed by men
and women?
Are there
differences in the
kinds of crime
committed by men
and women?
Is there any
evidence that
women’s crime has
changed in either
amount or
kind ?
Is there any
evidence that
women’s crime has
changed in either
amount or
kind ?

Theories of Gender and CrimeTheories of Gender and Crime
Frances Heidensohn (1985) suggests that the question we
should be asking is not why some women commit crime,
but why women are so non-criminal?
Frances Heidensohn (1985) suggests that the question we
should be asking is not why some women commit crime,
but why women are so non-criminal?
Biological
Theory
Biological
Theory
Sex-role
Theory
Sex-role
Theory TransgressionTransgression
She considers three explanations:She considers three explanations:

Biological TheoryBiological Theory
The origins of this theory go back to Victorian
ideas such as Cesare Lombroso (left).
The origins of this theory go back to Victorian
ideas such as Cesare Lombroso (left).
It argues that 'normal' females have a
disposition that repels them from deviant and
criminal behaviour.
It argues that 'normal' females have a
disposition that repels them from deviant and
criminal behaviour.
This theory has little support in
sociology, although a link between
female crime and hormonal and
menstrual factors has been made.
This theory has little support in
sociology, although a link between
female crime and hormonal and
menstrual factors has been made.

Sex-role Theory (Socialization)Sex-role Theory (Socialization)
From infancy, children are socialized
that the two sexes are different.
From infancy, children are socialized
that the two sexes are different.
Female roles contain such elements
as caring, passivity, and domesticity.
Female roles contain such elements
as caring, passivity, and domesticity.
Male roles, on the other hand, stress elements of toughness,
aggressiveness and sexual conquest.
Male roles, on the other hand, stress elements of toughness,
aggressiveness and sexual conquest.
It is argued that females generally lack the values that are
typically associated with delinquency. However, laddette
behaviour challenges this.
It is argued that females generally lack the values that are
typically associated with delinquency. However, laddette
behaviour challenges this.

Sex-role Theory (continued)Sex-role Theory (continued)
Even with shoplifting
and prostitution it is
argued these express
socialised roles of
family provider on the
one hand and sexual
provider on the other.
Even with shoplifting
and prostitution it is
argued these express
socialised roles of
family provider on the
one hand and sexual
provider on the other.

Social ControlSocial Control
Frances Heidensohn (1985) says women
commit so few crimes because of the
ways in which they are ideologically
controlled.
Frances Heidensohn (1985) says women
commit so few crimes because of the
ways in which they are ideologically
controlled.
Firstly in the way in which societies are
cemented together by a shared value
system.
Firstly in the way in which societies are
cemented together by a shared value
system.
Secondly in the way bonding occurs
within relationships of family, the peer
group, and the school.
Secondly in the way bonding occurs
within relationships of family, the peer
group, and the school.

Pat Carlen and Control TheoryPat Carlen and Control Theory
Pat Carlen (1985) has adopted control
theory located in 'class deals' and 'gender
deals'.
Pat Carlen (1985) has adopted control
theory located in 'class deals' and 'gender
deals'.
Frances Heidensohn argues most women
conform because failure to do results in
labelling as unfeminine behaviour.
Frances Heidensohn argues most women
conform because failure to do results in
labelling as unfeminine behaviour.
Females who are most likely to become
criminal are those who have not had, or
have rejected, the 'gender deal'.
Females who are most likely to become
criminal are those who have not had, or
have rejected, the 'gender deal'.
Females who have been in care, thrown out of home, or have
rejected 'normal' family life, are the most likely to be law-
breakers.
Females who have been in care, thrown out of home, or have
rejected 'normal' family life, are the most likely to be law-
breakers.

Lack of OpportunitiesLack of Opportunities
There was an assumption that because
women were confined to the private
world with limited access to the public
world they lacked opportunity for crime.
There was an assumption that because
women were confined to the private
world with limited access to the public
world they lacked opportunity for crime.
However, this situation is changing, with
women occupying roles in the workplace
and public life.
However, this situation is changing, with
women occupying roles in the workplace
and public life.
Women still have less opportunity for crimes but Wilkinson
found in California that where women were (arguably) equal
to men, they were engaged in similar levels of white-collar
crime. What does this suggest?
Women still have less opportunity for crimes but Wilkinson
found in California that where women were (arguably) equal
to men, they were engaged in similar levels of white-collar
crime. What does this suggest?

TransgressionTransgression
Adopting a Postmodernist approach
Carol Smart (1990) introduced the
concept of 'transgressive criminology‘.
Adopting a Postmodernist approach
Carol Smart (1990) introduced the
concept of 'transgressive criminology‘.
In order to understand crime in a
Postmodernist society, transgression
takes us beyond the boundaries of
conventional criminology.
In order to understand crime in a
Postmodernist society, transgression
takes us beyond the boundaries of
conventional criminology.
It considers ideas as diverse as self-
imposed curfews; treatment of women
as victims; domestic violence, abuse
and rape.
It considers ideas as diverse as self-
imposed curfews; treatment of women
as victims; domestic violence, abuse
and rape.

‘‘Chivalry’ FactorChivalry’ Factor
Some argue women are more deviant
than they appear and are protected by a
‘chivalry factor‘ by police, courts, etc.
Some argue women are more deviant
than they appear and are protected by a
‘chivalry factor‘ by police, courts, etc.
Hilary Allen (1987) argues mental health
explanation (including PMS) for female
criminality results in lighter punishments
by the courts.
Hilary Allen (1987) argues mental health
explanation (including PMS) for female
criminality results in lighter punishments
by the courts.
However, Eileen Leonard (1982)
challenges the 'chivalry factor‘ pointing
out how ‘bad women’ are treated more
harshly than some men.
However, Eileen Leonard (1982)
challenges the 'chivalry factor‘ pointing
out how ‘bad women’ are treated more
harshly than some men.

Exam Evaluation PointExam Evaluation Point
Factors that label a woman as ‘bad’ include anything that
implies she is a ‘bad Mother’ (neglect, abuse, children in
care, etc.) or promiscuous (prostitute, teenage mother,
children from several fathers, etc.
Factors that label a woman as ‘bad’ include anything that
implies she is a ‘bad Mother’ (neglect, abuse, children in
care, etc.) or promiscuous (prostitute, teenage mother,
children from several fathers, etc.
Such women seem to be treated quite harshly by the
agents of social control because they do not conform to
expected norms of femininity.
Such women seem to be treated quite harshly by the
agents of social control because they do not conform to
expected norms of femininity.

Female Crime StatisticsFemale Crime Statistics
Whilst they commit less than men,
women commit all types of offences.
Whilst they commit less than men,
women commit all types of offences.
Women’s property crime is motivated
by economic factors (just like men).
Women’s property crime is motivated
by economic factors (just like men).
Women fear and feel the impact of
the stigma of the ‘criminal’ label.
Women fear and feel the impact of
the stigma of the ‘criminal’ label.
Women offenders are seen as
'doubly deviant' - for breaking social
rules, and being viewed as
‘unfeminine’.
Women offenders are seen as
'doubly deviant' - for breaking social
rules, and being viewed as
‘unfeminine’.
Quantitative and
qualitative evidence
suggests:
Quantitative and
qualitative evidence
suggests:

Will Women’s Crime Rise?Will Women’s Crime Rise?
Freda Adler (1975) believes that
women’s liberation will increase
women’s participation in criminal
activity.
Freda Adler (1975) believes that
women’s liberation will increase
women’s participation in criminal
activity.
Her evidence is partly based on a
growth of juvenile crime by (liberated)
girls.
Her evidence is partly based on a
growth of juvenile crime by (liberated)
girls.
Just as they are penetrating the labour
market, so they are moving also into
‘criminal careers’.
Just as they are penetrating the labour
market, so they are moving also into
‘criminal careers’.
However, Carol Smart (1979) criticises Adler on the grounds
that she (wrongly) sees juvenile delinquency as reflective of
future adult crime
However, Carol Smart (1979) criticises Adler on the grounds
that she (wrongly) sees juvenile delinquency as reflective of
future adult crime

Rise in Women’s CrimeRise in Women’s Crime
Stephen Box feels that any increase in women’s
property crime has more to do with poverty
(especially as lone-parents) than their liberation.
Stephen Box feels that any increase in women’s
property crime has more to do with poverty
(especially as lone-parents) than their liberation.
He also found a relationship between the
increasing employment of women police officers
and the recording of violent crime by women.
He also found a relationship between the
increasing employment of women police officers
and the recording of violent crime by women.
He suggests the authorities have also been
‘sensitized’, resulting in female crimes of
violence becoming more likely to be recorded.
He suggests the authorities have also been
‘sensitized’, resulting in female crimes of
violence becoming more likely to be recorded.

James MesserschmidtJames Messerschmidt
James Messerschmidt (1993, pictured
left) argues there is a 'normative
masculinity' (what a real man should
be), highly valued by most men.
James Messerschmidt (1993, pictured
left) argues there is a 'normative
masculinity' (what a real man should
be), highly valued by most men.
He argues that masculinity is
something males have to constantly
work at.
He argues that masculinity is
something males have to constantly
work at.
A businessman can achieve masculinity through the exercise
of power over women in the workplace, whereas a man with
no power at work may express his masculinity through control
of women in the domestic situation – e.g. domestic violence.
A businessman can achieve masculinity through the exercise
of power over women in the workplace, whereas a man with
no power at work may express his masculinity through control
of women in the domestic situation – e.g. domestic violence.

Messerschmidt: Middle-class MalesMesserschmidt: Middle-class Males
Middle-class boys achieve educational
success but at the expense of
emasculation.
Middle-class boys achieve educational
success but at the expense of
emasculation.
In school they adopt an
'accommodating masculinity',
In school they adopt an
'accommodating masculinity',
But compensate for this out of school
by adopting a more 'oppositional
masculinity': engaging in pranks,
excessive drinking and 'high spirits'.
But compensate for this out of school
by adopting a more 'oppositional
masculinity': engaging in pranks,
excessive drinking and 'high spirits'.

Messerschmidt: Working-class MalesMesserschmidt: Working-class Males
Working-class males adopt an
'oppositional masculinity', both inside
and outside school, which is more
aggressive in nature.
Working-class males adopt an
'oppositional masculinity', both inside
and outside school, which is more
aggressive in nature.
Young Black males can be sucked
into property and violent crime as
ways of enhancing 'hegemonic
masculinity‘ (Bob Connell).
Young Black males can be sucked
into property and violent crime as
ways of enhancing 'hegemonic
masculinity‘ (Bob Connell).
Messerschmidt notes how rape and pimping is sometimes
used to express control over women.
Messerschmidt notes how rape and pimping is sometimes
used to express control over women.

Aggressive MasculinityAggressive Masculinity
Men may express their masculinity
through criminal behaviour, e.g.
fighting, football hooliganism, etc.
Men may express their masculinity
through criminal behaviour, e.g.
fighting, football hooliganism, etc.
Bea Campbell (1993) argues young
men seek compensation for lack of
breadwinner status through
'aggressive masculinity'.
Bea Campbell (1993) argues young
men seek compensation for lack of
breadwinner status through
'aggressive masculinity'.
The forms of masculinity adopted involve control over
technology (stolen cars) over public space (the streets);
violence against the 'other' (Asian shopkeepers and women).
The forms of masculinity adopted involve control over
technology (stolen cars) over public space (the streets);
violence against the 'other' (Asian shopkeepers and women).

Enjoyment of DevianceEnjoyment of Deviance
Katz (1988) argues that criminology has
failed to understand the role of pleasure
in committing crime.
Katz (1988) argues that criminology has
failed to understand the role of pleasure
in committing crime.
This search for pleasure is meaningful
when equated within masculinity’s stress
upon status, control over others, and
success.
This search for pleasure is meaningful
when equated within masculinity’s stress
upon status, control over others, and
success.
Violent crime is 'seductive' undertaken for chaos, thrill and
potential danger.
Violent crime is 'seductive' undertaken for chaos, thrill and
potential danger.
AO2 Point: Compare to Postmodernist search for thrills and to
Walter B. Miller’s focal concern of ‘excitement’.
AO2 Point: Compare to Postmodernist search for thrills and to
Walter B. Miller’s focal concern of ‘excitement’.

Women as VictimsWomen as Victims
A significant proportion of criminal activity
consists of crimes against women.
A significant proportion of criminal activity
consists of crimes against women.
The majority of such crime is carried out by
men and includes the use of violence.
The majority of such crime is carried out by
men and includes the use of violence.
25% of serious violence takes place within
the home, ironically the place where
women feel most secure.
25% of serious violence takes place within
the home, ironically the place where
women feel most secure.
1 in 4 women are victims of domestic
violence, 1 in 10 each year.
1 in 4 women are victims of domestic
violence, 1 in 10 each year.
Such crimes against women are subject to
significant underreporting.
Such crimes against women are subject to
significant underreporting.

RapeRape
The Home Office (2001) reported that
1 in 20 women aged 16-60 had been
raped, 45% by their current partners.
The Home Office (2001) reported that
1 in 20 women aged 16-60 had been
raped, 45% by their current partners.
Rape is related to the association of
masculinity with power, dominance
and toughness – not sexual desire.
Rape is related to the association of
masculinity with power, dominance
and toughness – not sexual desire.
A substantial number of rapists
appear to be only able to become
sexually aroused after they have
terrorised and degraded their victims.
A substantial number of rapists
appear to be only able to become
sexually aroused after they have
terrorised and degraded their victims.
Susan Brownmiller (1975) argues
that rape is part of a system of male
intimidation keeping women in fear.
Susan Brownmiller (1975) argues
that rape is part of a system of male
intimidation keeping women in fear.

Domestic ViolenceDomestic Violence
Betsy Stanko (2000) found an act of
domestic violence is committed every 6
seconds in Britain.
Betsy Stanko (2000) found an act of
domestic violence is committed every 6
seconds in Britain.
It is estimated that a quarter of all violent
crimes committed are "domestics“.
It is estimated that a quarter of all violent
crimes committed are "domestics“.
In 45-70% of cases, the father inflicts
violence on the children as well as the
mother (BMA Report, 1998).
In 45-70% of cases, the father inflicts
violence on the children as well as the
mother (BMA Report, 1998).

BMA Report on DomesticBMA Report on Domestic
Violence (1998)Violence (1998)
More than 1 in 4 women experience
domestic violence in their lives.
More than 1 in 4 women experience
domestic violence in their lives.
1 in 10 women experience domestic
violence every year.
1 in 10 women experience domestic
violence every year.
Violence ranges from being punched,
choked, bitten, burning, starving and
knifing, to being forced to have sex
against their will.
Violence ranges from being punched,
choked, bitten, burning, starving and
knifing, to being forced to have sex
against their will.
Domestic violence is more likely to occur
during pregnancy.
Domestic violence is more likely to occur
during pregnancy.

Meanings of Domestic ViolenceMeanings of Domestic Violence
Public admission of the violence
present in their family can make
women feel a strong sense of failure.
Public admission of the violence
present in their family can make
women feel a strong sense of failure.
Support for battered partners is not
always forthcoming from police,
family, friends, or the welfare
services.
Support for battered partners is not
always forthcoming from police,
family, friends, or the welfare
services.
The police traditionally regarded
‘domestics’ as private matters and
reluctant to intervene.
The police traditionally regarded
‘domestics’ as private matters and
reluctant to intervene.
From 1990s the Home Office have instructed the police to
treat domestic violence the same as any form of violence.
From 1990s the Home Office have instructed the police to
treat domestic violence the same as any form of violence.

Key Factors in Explaining WomenKey Factors in Explaining Women
as Victimsas Victims
The sexual objectification of women: women as property.The sexual objectification of women: women as property.
The relationship between crime and the wider patriarchal
social control of women in society.
The relationship between crime and the wider patriarchal
social control of women in society.
Traditional gender role socialisation (male = dominant).Traditional gender role socialisation (male = dominant).
The link between the ‘crisis of masculinity’ (powerlessnes at
work, divorce, unemployment) and crimes against women.
The link between the ‘crisis of masculinity’ (powerlessnes at
work, divorce, unemployment) and crimes against women.
Men’s reaction to the feminisation of the labour force and the
growing economic and cultural power of women
Men’s reaction to the feminisation of the labour force and the
growing economic and cultural power of women

AO2 Exam Evaluation PointsAO2 Exam Evaluation Points
In evaluating the ‘women as victims’ situation reference
should be made to the significant contribution of feminism
in raising our awareness and understanding.
In evaluating the ‘women as victims’ situation reference
should be made to the significant contribution of feminism
in raising our awareness and understanding.
However, some might question whether feminists have
exaggerated male power and/or the extent of female
victimisation.
However, some might question whether feminists have
exaggerated male power and/or the extent of female
victimisation.
Answers might recognise social changes, for example the
increasing level of violent crime committed by females
against females.
Answers might recognise social changes, for example the
increasing level of violent crime committed by females
against females.

05/06/15 Crime and Deviance Chapter 13 29
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