principles of teaching

UNIT I
CHAPTER I
“Every child is potential genius.”

⫸ The learner is an embodied spirit.
⫸ He / she is an union of a sentient body and rational
soul. His/ her body experiences sensations and feels
pleasure and pain. His/ her soul is the principle of acts,
the source of intellectual abstraction, self-reflection
and free rational volition. Body and soul exist in mutual
dependence.(Kelly, 1965)
As teachers then, let us care for embodied spirit-learner.
Let us feed his/her body as well as his/her
spirit.

THE FUNDAMENTAL
EQUIPMENT
OF THE LEARNER
COGNITIVE FACULTIES

Five Senses
The five sense are part of the sentient body. For
effective and efficient learning, it is important
that they function normally.
“there is nothing in the mind which was not
first in some manner in the senses.”

Instincts
Comes from the Latin word instincts
which means impulse.
The learner has a natural or inherent
capacity or tendency to respond to
environmental stimuli such as danger
signs for survival or self-preservation.

Imagination
Is the ability to form a mental image of
something that is not perceived through the
senses.
Memory
This is the cognitive faculty of retaining
and recalling past experiences.

Intellect
By the learner’s intellect, he/she can
engage in cognitive processes such as
forming ideas or concepts, reasoning out
and making judgment.
Reasoning includes analyzing.
Judging is evaluating.

APPETITIVE FACULTIES
FEELINGS AND EMOTIONS
⫸ ~ Emotions is the on/off switch for learning.
POSITIVE FEELINGS AND EMOTIONS make the teaching-learning
process an exciting and a joyful, fruitful affair.
⫸ NEGATIVE FEELINGS AND EMOTIONS makes the same process a
burden. The lessons that we learn and remember most
are those that have struck us in one way or another.

RATIONAL WILL
⫸ serves as a guiding force and the main integrating
force in his/her character. By his/her will, the learners
wills what his/her intellect presents as good and
desirable.
⫸ the learners will make his/her free to choose or not
to choose to do the good as presented by his/her
intellect.
⫸ the free will that will not allow the learner to be
totally determined by his/her environment.

⫸ the degree to which the learner is influenced by his/her
environment depends ultimately the strength of his/her
will.
the learners whose will is WEAK will easily succumbs to the
bad influence of his/her peer group even if his/her
intellect tells him/her or not.
⫸ the learner with a STRONG will shall resist the temptation
to be influenced by bad peer group.
THEREFORE, THE FOCUS OF VALUES EDUCATION SHOULD
BE THE STRENGTHENING OF THE WILL.

FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO THE DIFFERENCES
AMONG LEARNERS.
•Ability
•Aptitude
•Interests
•Family and Cultural background
•Attitudes and Values

•
Howard Earl Gardner
 (born July 11, 1943) is an
 The author of over twenty books
American developmental
psychologist and the John H. and
Elisabeth A. Hobbs Professor of
Cognition and Education at the
Harvard Graduate School of
Education at Harvard University.
He is the Senior Director of
Harvard Project Zero, and since
1995, he has been the co-director
of the Good Project.
translated into over thirty
languages, he is best known for
his theory of multiple
intelligences.

•Verbal- Linguistic Intelligence
Sensitive to sounds,
meanings, structures and
style of language.
 Inclination to speaking, writing,
listening and reading.
 Ability to speak effectively
(teacher, religious leader,
politician) or write effectively
(poet, journalist, novelist,
copywriter, editor)

•Logical- Mathematical Intelligence
 patterns, numbers and numerical
• data, causes and effects, objective
• and quantitative reasoning.
 finding patterns, making calculations, forming and testing hypothesis, using
the scientific method, deductive and inductive reasoning.
 work effectively with numbers (accountant, statistician, economist)
• and reason effectively (engineer,
• scientist, computer programmer)

•Spatial Intelligence
 colors, shapes, visual puzzles,
symmetry, lines, images
 representing ideas visually,
creating mental images,
noticing visual details, drawing
and sketching
 create visually (artist,
photographer, engineer,
decorator) and visualize
accurately (tour guide, scout,
ranger)

•Bodily- Kinesthetic Intelligence
 Touch, movement, physical self,
• athleticism
 Activities acquiring strength, speed,
• flexibility, hand-eye coordination
• and balance
 Use the hands to fix or create
• (mechanic, surgeon, carpenter,
• sculptor, mason) and use the body
• expressively (dancer, athlete, actor)

•. Musical Intelligence
 or) and analyze music (music critiTone, beat, tempo, melody,
• pitch, sound
 Listening, singing, playing an
• instrument
 Create music (song writer,
• composer, musician, conductc)

•Interpersonal Intelligence
 Body language, moods, voice,
• feelings
 Noticing and responding to other
• people’s feelings and personalities
 Work with people (administrators,
• managers, consultants, teachers)
• and help people identify and
• overcome problems (therapists,
• psychologists)

•Intrapersonal Intelligence
 one’s own strengths, weaknesses,
• goals, and desires
 setting goals, assessing personal
• abilities and liabilities,
• monitoring one’s own thinking
 meditate, reflect, exhibit self-
• discipline, maintain composure,
• and get the most of oneself

•Naturalist Intelligence
 Natural objects, plants, animals,
• naturally occurring patterns,
• ecological issues
 Identifying and classifying living
• things and natural objects
 Analyze ecological and natural
• situations and data (ecologists and
• rangers),learn from living things
• (zoologist, botanist, veterinarian)
• and work in natural settings
• (hunter, scout)

•Existential Intelligence
 “big picture” of existence; why
• are we here
 Sensitivity to deep questions
• about human existence, such
• as the meaning of life why do
• we die, and how did we get here
 Reflect on the meaning of
• human existence

Learning style is the way a person
processes, internalizes, and studies
new and challenging material.

Dunn and Dunn Learning Style Model

Dunn and Dunn Learning Style Model
A summary of these elements is provided below (Dunn, 2000).
⫸Environmental. The environmental strand refers to these elements:
lighting, sound, temperature, and seating arrangement. For
example, some people need to study in a cool and quiet room, and
others cannot focus unless they have music playing and it is warm
(sound and temperature elements).
⫸ Emotional. This strand includes the following elements:
motivation, persistence, responsibility, and structure. For example,
some people must complete a project before they start a new one,
and others work best on multiple tasks at the same time
(persistence element).

⫸ Sociological. The sociological strand represents elements related
to how individuals learn in association with other people: (a) alone
or with peers, (b) an authoritative adult or with a collegial colleague,
and (c) learning in a variety of ways or in routine patterns. For
example, a number of people need to work alone when tackling a
new and difficult subject, while others learn best when working with
colleagues (learning alone or with peers element).
⫸ Physiological. The elements in this strand are: perceptual
(auditory, visual, tactile, and kinesthetic), time-of-day energy levels,
intake (eating or not while studying) and mobility (sitting still or
moving around). For example, many people refer to themselves as
night owls or early birds because they function best at night or in
the morning (time-of-day element).

⫸ Psychological. The elements in this strand correspond to the
following types of psychological processing: hemispheric, impulsive
or reflective, and global versus analytic. The hemispheric element
refers to left and right brain processing modes; the impulsive versus
reflective style describes how some people leap before thinking and
others scrutinize the situation before moving an inch. Global and
analytic elements are unique in comparison to other elements
because these two elements are made up of distinct clusters of
elements found in the other four strands. The elements that
determine global and analytic processing styles are: sound, light,
seating arrangement, persistence, sociological preference, and
intake. Global and analytic processing styles will be discussed in
detail in the next section.

•THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER
• The professional teacher is the “licensed professional who possesses
dignity and the reputation with high moral values as well as technical and
professional competence . . . s/she adheres to observes, and practices a
set of ethical and moral principles, standards and values” (Code of Ethics
of Professional Teacher, 1997) The professional teacher is one who went
through four to five years period of rigorous academic preparation in
teaching in one who is given a license to teach by Board for Professional
Teachers of Professional Regulation Commission after fulfilling
requirements prescribed by law such as passing the Licensure
Examination for Teacher (LET). s/he is registered in the roster of
professional teacher at the Professional Regulation Commission and
undergoes continuing professional education.

•PROFESSIONAL ATTRIBUTES
• A professional teacher perceives himself/herself as someone
who can effect change or learning, (sense of efficacy) because
s/he is an expert in what s/he teaches (subject matter
knowledge), and in how s/he teaches (pedagogical knowledge).

•A professional possesses the following attributes:
• Control of the knowledge base of teaching and learning and use of
this knowledge to guide the science and art of his/her teaching
practice.
• Repertoire of best teaching practice and can use these to instruct
children in classrooms and to work with adults in the school setting
• Dispositions and skills to approach all aspects of his/her work in a
reflective, collegial, and problem-solving manner.
• View of learning to teach as a lifelong process and dispositions and
skills for working towards improving his/her own teaching as well as
improving schools (Arends, 1994)

• The last attribute cited by Arends highlights continuing
professional development (cpd) or continuing professional
education (cpe). As the quotation goes,
“Once a teacher,
forever a student. ”

PERSONAL ATTRIBUTES
Personality is the sum of one’s personal characteristics. It is one’s
identity. Teachers more than any other professional, are
momentarily subjected to scrutiny to the minutest detail and
observation by those they associate with.

•Passion
• It is a compelling force that emerges from teachers’ love for
children.
•Humor
• Teachers’ humor connects them with their students like a
magnet. They help in merging two words-youth and maturity.

•Enthusiasm
• Enthusiasm is synonymous to eagerness and excitement.
Enthusiastic teachers are full of energy and dynamism. Their
passion and love for children are easily felt. Everyone
anticipates an interesting and enjoyable learning activity
unfortunately. Not all the teachers are born with an alert and
zestful disposition. With enthusiastic teachers Students look
forward to any activity they can participate in with them.

•Commitment
• Commitment is a “Solemn Promise” to perform the duties and
responsibilities mandated by the laws and code of ethics of the
profession. It is unwavering pledge to perform all teaching and
learning activities with consistency and selflessness to the best
interest of the student under their care. Committed teachers
are caring and dedicated. They are ready to carry on no matter
the price. Dedication to the teaching job is the true essence of
professionalism. Today we lament over the fast disappearing
breed of teachers with a missionary spirit.

•Values and Attitude
• Teachers are models of values. Whether conscious of them or
not, values are exhibited implicitly and explicitly. Values connote
standards, code of ethics and strong beliefs.
• Patience
• It is refers to a teacher’s uncomplaining nature , self control and
persistence.

What is an
effective teacher
?

•EFFECTIVE TEACHER
– is a leader who can inspire and influence
students, knows his /her subject well, and is
kind and respectful toward his /her
students. She/he also has high standards
and expectations coexisting with
encouragement, support and flexibility.

Here are some research findings on
EFFECTIVE TEACHERS compiled by
James H. Stronge (2012). Discuss their
implications to teacher pre-service
education:

1. Teacher with a major and minor in
content area are associated with higher
student achievement especially in the
area of science and mathematics.
2. Caring teachers who know their students
create relationship know their students create
relationships that enhance their learning
process.

3. Effective teachers practice gender,
racial and ethnic fairness.
4. Effective teachers consistently behave in a
friendly and personal manner maintaining
appropriate teacher-student role structure.

5. High levels
motivation in teachers
relate to high levels of
achievements in
students.
6. Effective teachers
exude positive
attitudes about life
and teaching.
7. Teachers whose
students have high
achievement rates
continually mention
reflection on their
work as an important
part of improving
their teaching.

•- The National Competency-Based Teacher
Standards (NCBTS) that you discussed in one of
your courses, The Teaching Profession, sums up
the professional and personal traits of a
professional teacher. You may want to refer to
them again.

• The NCBTS is an integrated
theoretical framework that
defines the different
dimensions of effective
teaching, where effective
teaching means being able to
help all types of students
learn the different learning
goals in the curriculum.
What is the NCBTS?

•
Why Do We Need the NCBTS?
• Filipino teachers often get mixed signals about what it means to
be an effective teacher. For example, they may have been taught
definitions of good teaching by teacher educators in their pre-service
education that seem to be different from what their
principals and super visors expect in their schools. Alternatively,
teachers are taught new teaching approaches that seem
inconsistent with the Performance Appraisal System. What is
worse is when teachers who have the reputation of being
ineffective teachers are promoted to higher ranks.

“ Teaching involves the
reflective acquisition and
application of complex and
problematic technical
knowledge to facilitating
student learning in actual
contexts.”

• Unit I
Chapter 3
THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
• “To heredity, the child owes his possibilities. However, to
environment, he owes the realization of these possibilities.”

•INTRODUCTION:
• The learning environment consists of the physical environment
as well as the psychological atmosphere or the socio-emotional
climate which is mainly a product of the interaction and
relationship between teacher and students and among the
students.

•PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
• The physical environment includes the physical condition of the
classroom, the arrangement of furniture, seating arrangement,
the classroom temperature and lightning.
•We enjoy learning in a neat, tidy, orderly, spacious, well lighted,
well ventilated and quiet classroom. We can’t learn in dirty,
topsy-turvy, warm, poorly ventilated and noisy classrooms.
• How should the environment be structured for effective
teaching and learning?

•PSYCHOLOGICAL CLIMATE
• Let us not forget that equally important, if not more important, is
the psychological atmosphere or climate that reigns in the
classroom. Researchers agree that in addition to conducive physical
environment, the favorable school climate includes:
1. safety (e.g. rules and norms; physical safety; social –emotional
safety)
2. relationship (e.g. respect for diversity; school
connectedness/engagement; social support-adults; social support –
students; leadership)
3. teaching and learning (e.g. social, emotional, ethical and civic
learning; support for learning; professional relationship)

•Pine and Horne (1990) described a facilitative learning
environment for learning. It is one:
1) Which encourage people to be active- A psychological classroom
environment which is supportive of learning engages the learners in
the learning process.
2 ) Which promotes and facilitates the individual’s discovery of the
personal meaning of idea –Meaning is not imposed by teacher .This
is personally arrived at by the learners considering the uniqueness of
their experiences.
3) Which emphasizes the uniquely personal and subjective nature of
learning – Every learner is unique.
4) In which difference is good and desirable – There is respect for
diversity. To be different does not mean to be deficient.

5) Which consistently recognizes people’s right to make mistakes –
Learners feel at ease and learn best when mistakes are welcome
because they are recognized as part and parcel of the learning
process.
6) Which tolerates ambiguity – This leads to openness to ideas and
prevents teacher an learners alike to be judgmental.
7) In which evaluation is a cooperative process with emphasis on
self-evaluation – This makes evaluation less threatening. The learner
is not alone when he evaluates learning, he is with a group. His/her
progress is seen against his/her targets not against the performance
of his/her classmate.

8) Which encourages openness of self rather than concealment
of self – People feel at ease and so aren’t afraid to be
transparent.
9) In which people are encouraged to trust in themselves as well
as in external sources – There is a strong social support and it is
not difficult to trust others.
10) In which people feel they are respected – Everyone is
convinced of the inner worth/dignity of each individual and so it
is easy to respect everyone

11) In which people feel they are respected – There is a sense of
belongingness.
12) Which permits confrontation – Since learners feel at ease
and feel they are accepted, they are not afraid to confront
themselves.
13) A conducive learning environment is necessary in the full
development of the cognitive and appetitive faculties of the
learner – His senses, instincts, imagination, memory, feelings,
emotions and will.

•Generalization:
• The learning environment is a product of physical, psychological
as well as social atmosphere created by the interaction
between teacher and the learners and among the learners
themselves. The physical features of the classroom which
include space, location, lighting, ventilation, order, tidiness and
noise level exert influence in the teaching learning process.

•LEARNING
• acquisition of knowledge-base used with fluency to make sense
of the world, solve problems and to make decisions.

Learning
Acquisition of
knowledge-base
Fluency
Make sense of
the world
Solve
problems
Make
decisions

•Inert ideas
• These are the ideas that are merely received by the mind
without being utilized, or tested, or thrown into fresh
combination.
• Is memorizing without understanding considered learning?

LEARNING PRINCIPLES
Horne and Pine (1990)
• Learning is an experience which occurs inside the learner
and is activated by the learner.
• Learning is the discovery of the personal meaning and
relevance of ideas.
• Leaning (behavioral change) is a consequence of
experience.
• Learning is a cooperative and collaborative process.

• Learning is an evolutionary process.
• Learning is sometimes a painful process.
•One of the richest resources for learning is the learner
himself.
• The process of learning is emotional as well as
intellectual.
• The process of problem solving and learning are highly
uniqu and individual

No one teaches anyone anything of
significance…
People learn what they want to learn, they
see what they want to see, and hear what
they want to hear

Edward Thorndike in the early
suggested several “Law of
Learning” that seemed
generally applicable to the
learning process. This “Laws”
provides the instructor with
insight into learning process
that will assist in providing a
rewarding experience to the
learners.

The first three are the basic laws:
Law of Readiness, Law of Exercise, and the
most famous and generally accepted, the Law
of Effect. The other three laws were added
later as a result of experimental studies; the
Law of Primacy, the Law of Intensity and the
Law of Recency.

•Law of Readiness
• Individual learn best if they are physically, mentally and
emotionally ready to learn and they do not learn if they see no
reason for learning.

•Law of Effect
• The learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant
or satisfying feeling.
• Learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant
feeling.

• Experiments were designed to determine if
animals solved a problem through reasoning or
by a more basic process.
• Thorndike experimented with baby chicks, dogs,
cats, monkeys and fish.
• A puzzle box was used to get each animal to trip
a latch. The animals would claw, bite, scratch,
and claw against the sides of the box.
• Repeated confinements decreased the time it
took for the animals to escape confinement.

Law of Exercise
•Things most often repeated are best remembered.
“Without practice, there is no knowledge”
Paulo Freire

Law of Primacy
• Things learned first create a strong impression.

Law of intensity
The more intense the material taught, the more it is
likely learned.

The Law of Recency
things most recently learned are best remembered

Law of Freedom:
Things freely learned are best learned

Selection and Organization of
Content

Guiding Principles in the Selection and Organization of
Content
• One guiding principle related to subject matter content is
to observe the following qualities in the selection and
organization of content:
•Validity- This means teaching the content that we ought
to teach according to national standards explicit in K to 12
Basic Education Curriculum; this also means teaching the
content in order to realize the goal and objectives of the
course as laid down in the basic education curriculum.

•Significance- What we teach should respond to the
needs and interests of the learners, hence meaningful and
significant.
•Balance- Content includes not only facts but also
concepts and values. The use of the three-level approach
ensures a balance cognitive, psychomotor, and affective
lesson content.

• A Balance content is something that is not too easy to
bore the above average student, neither not too difficult to
turn off the average. It is something that challenges the
student. To observe the principle of balance, no topic must
be extensively discussed at the expense of other topics.
•Self-sufficiency- Content fully covers the essentials.
Learning content is not “mile-wide-and-inch-deep”. The
essentials are sufficiently covered and are treated in depth.
This is a case of “less is more”.

• Interest- Teacher considers the interest of the learners,
their developmental stages and cultural and ethnic
background.
•Utility- Will this content be of use to the learners? It is not
meant only to be memorized for test and grade purposes.
What is learned has a function even after examinations are
over.

•Feasibility- The content is feasible in the sense that
the essential content can be covered in the amount of
time available instruction. A guaranteed an a viable
curriculum is the first in the school-related factors
that has the greatest impact on student achievement.

•Let us teach the content that:
⫸ is aligned with goals and objectives of the basic
education curriculum
⫸ responds to the needs of the learner
⫸ includes cognitive skill and affective elements

⫸ fully and deeply cover the essentials to avoid the
“mile-wide-and-inch-deep” impression.
⫸ that is of use to the learners
⫸ that is viable and feasible

2. At the base of the structure of cognitive subject
matter content are facts. We can’t do away with facts
but be sure to go beyond facts by constructing an
increasingly richer and more sophisticated knowledge
base and by working out a process of conceptual
understanding. Facts are basic in the structure of
cognitive subject but content must go beyond facts.

*Few ways which you can help you students*
⫸ Providing opportunities for experimentation- Our
so-called experiments in the science classes are more of
this sort-following a cook book recipe where students are
made to follow step-by-step procedure to end up confirming
a law that has already been experimented on and discovered
by great scientists ahead of us instead of the students
coming up with their own procedure and ends discovering
something new. After teaching your students how to cook a
recipe following the procedures laid down in a cookbook,
allow them to experiment with mix ingredients.

⫸ Presenting the ideas of others- While it is beneficial for
you to encourage your students to discover principles for
themselves, it will not jeopardize your students if you present
the ideas of others who worked hard over the years to explain
phenomena.
⫸ Emphasizing conceptual understanding- If we
emphasize conceptual understanding, the emphasis goes
beyond facts. We integrate and correlate facts, concepts and
values in meaningful manner.

*Here are some specific strategies that can help you
develop conceptual understanding in your students.*
⫸ Organize units around a few core ideas and themes
⫸ Explore each topic in depths
⫸ Explain how new ideas relate to students’ own
experiences and to things they have previously learned

⫸ Show students
⫸ Ask students to teach others what they have
learned.
⫸ Promote dialogue
⫸ Use authentic activities

Subject matter content is an integration of cognitive,
skill and affective elements/components.
It is also an integration of facts, concepts, principles, hypotheses, theories
and laws, thinking skills, manipulative skills, values and attitudes.
⫸ Show students
⫸ Ask students to teach others what they have learned.
⫸ Promote dialogue
⫸ Use authentic activities
It is also an integration of facts, concepts, principles, hypotheses, theories
and laws, thinking skills, manipulative skills, values and attitudes.

The structure of subject matter content- our subject matter
content includes cognitive, skill and affective components.
⫸ Cognitive component is concerned with facts, concepts,
principles, hypotheses, theories and laws.
⫸ Skill component refers to thinking skills as well as
manipulative skills.
⫸ Affective component is the realm of values and attitudes.

Cognitive
Fact is an idea or action that can be verified
Concept is a categorization events, places, people and ideas.
Principle is the relationship between and among facts and concepts.
Hypotheses are educated guess about relationships
Theories refer to a set of facts, concepts and principles.
Laws are firmly established, thoroughly tested principle or theory.

⫸ Skills
•Manipulative skills
•Thinking skills
•DivergentThinking
1. Fluent Thinking- characterized by a variety of thoughts in
the kinds of ideas generated.
2. OriginalThinking- differs from what’s gone before.
3. Elaborative Thinking- embellishes on previous ideas or
plants.

⫸ Convergent Thinking
• It is narrowing down from many possible thoughts to
end up on a single best thought or an answer to a
problem.
⫸ Problem solving
• Is made easier when the problem is well-defined

⫸ When it is ill-defined, then the first thing to teach
our students is to better define the problem. Here are
some techniques:
•break large problems into well-defined ones
•distinguish information needed
•identify techniques to find needed information.

⫸ Algorithm strategy
Means following specific, step-by-step instructions.
How can we help our students acquire effective problem-solving
strategies?
• provide worked-out examples of algorithms being applied.
• help students understand why particular algorithms are
relevant and effective in certain situations
•when a student’s application of algorithm yields an
incorrect answer, look closely at the specific steps the
student has taken until the trouble spot is located.

⫸ Heuristic strategy
Means general problem-solving strategy. These are
informal, intuitive, speculative strategies that
sometimes lead to an effective solution and sometimes
do not.
For teaching heuristic:
 give students practice in defining ill-defined problems.
 teach heuristic that students can use where no
algorithms apply.

⫸ Metaphoric thinking
This type of thinking uses analogic thinking, a figure of speech
where a word is used in a manner different from its ordinary
designation to suggest or imply a parallelism or similarity.
 Critical thinking
 It involves evaluating information or arguments in terms of their
accuracy and worth.
It takes a variety of forms:
• Verbal reasoning
• Argument reasoning
• Hypothesis reasoning
• Decision making

⫸ Creative Thinking
This type of thinking involves producing something that is both
original and worthwhile.
⫸ For creative thinking, we must develop:
 Awareness
 Curiosity
 Imagination
 Fluency
 Originality
 Elaboration
 Perseverance

Attitudes and Values
Values can be taught. They are both thought and caught.
Values have:
⫸ Cognitive dimension -
⫸ Affective dimension -
⫸ Behavioral dimension –

How can we teach values?
⫸ By Deuteron-Teaching- your critical role as models
in and outside the classroom cannot be overemphasized.
⫸ By positively reinforcing good behavior
⫸ By teaching the cognitive component of values in the
classroom.

Selection and Use of Teaching
Strategies

•Guiding Principles in the selection and use of
teaching strategies:
1. Learning is an active process.
⫸ this means that we have to actively engage the
learners in learning activities if we want them to learn
what we intend to teach.
2. The more senses that are involved in learning, the
more and the better the learning.
⫸ for more and better learning appeal to all the senses
of the learner, if possible.

“Humans are intensely visual animals. The eyes
contain nearly 70 percent of the body’s receptors
and send millions of signals along the optic nerves
to the visual processing centers of the brain. We
take in more information visually than through any
of the other senses.) –Wolfe, 2001

3. Emotion has the power to increase retention and
learning
⫸ involve the emotion in learning. Cognitive processing is
emotionally charged.
4. Learning is meaningful when it is connected to the
students’ everyday life.
⫸ Meaningfulness and relevance of what we teach is
considerably reduced by our practice of teaching simply
for testing.

5. Good teaching goes beyond recall of information.
⫸ Good thinking concerns itself with higher-order-thinking
skills to develop creative and critical thinking.
6. An integrated teaching approach is far more
effective than teaching isolated bits of information.

An integrated approach incorporates multiple intelligences and
learning styles, research-based and brain based instructional
strategies.
*The seven more multi-intelligences introduced by Howard Gardner
1. Spatial
2. Musical
3. Bodily-kinesthetic
4. Intrapersonal
5. Interpersonal
6. Naturalist
7. Existential

The Following are some research findings cited by Patricia Wolfe in her
Book, “Brain Matters”
⫸ Without rehearsal or constant attention, information remains in
working memory for only about 15 to 20 seconds. This implies the
need for memory aids.
⫸ Learning is a process of building neural networks.
The Three Levels of Learning
Concrete
Symbolic
Abstract
⫸ Our Brains have difficulty comprehending very large numbers
because we have nothing in our experience to “hook” them to.

1. The eyes contain nearly 70 percent of the body’s
sensory receptors and send millions of signals every
second along the optic nerve to the visual processing
of the brain.
2. There is little doubt that when information is
embedded in music or rhyme, its recall is easier than
when it is in prose.

Brain-Based Strategies
1. Involving students in real-life or authentic problem solving
-sometimes students ask us when and where they need this and
that they are learning in school.
2. Using projects to increase meaning and motivation.
3. Simulations and role plays as meaning makers.
4. Classroom strategies using visual processing.
5. Songs, jingles and raps.
-content can be more easily learned when they give it a tune or
make it into rhyme through their personally composed songs,
jingles, and raps.
6. Mnemonic Strategies- The mnemonic strategies assist students
in recalling important information.

7. Writing strategies- Make students write their own word
problems and make them ask their classmates to solve them.
8. Active review- Instead of the teacher conducting the
review, students are given their turn.
9. Hans-on activities- Concrete experience is one of the
best ways to make long-lasting neural connections.
10. There is no such thing as best teaching method. The
best method is the one that works, the one that yields
results.

There are factors to consider in the choice of a
teaching method
 Instructional objective
The nature of the subject matter
The Learners
The Teacher
School policies

Selection and
Use of Instructional
Materials

General principles in the use of Instructional Materials:
1. All instructional materials are aids to instructions.
They do not replace the teacher.
2. Choose the instructional material that best suits your
instructional objectives.
3. If possible, use a variety of tools.
4. Check out your instructional material before class
starts to be sure it is working properly.

•
5. Learn how to use the instructional material.
Prepare introductory remarks, questions or initial
comments you may need.
Provide a conducive environment.
Explain the objectives of the lesson.
Stress what is to be watched.

Guiding Principles in the Assessment of
Learning
1. Assessment of learning is an integral part of the
teaching - learning process.
If assessment or evaluation is built into the teaching
learning process, students allergy to test may be cured
because it becomes very common and natural to them.
2. Assessment tool should match with performance
objective.
- Which assessment tool use, which test to formulate
must be based on our performance objective.

3. The results of assessment must be fed back to the
learners.
4. In assessing learning, teachers must consider
learners’, learning styles and multiple intelligences and
so must come up with a variety of ways of assessing
learning.
5. To contribute to the building of the culture of
success in the school, it is pedagogically sound that in
our assessment techniques we give some positive
feedback along with not so good ones

6. Emphasize on self-assessment.
- Danielson asserts: “assessments should not force
students to compete against one another: any competition
should be between students and their own prior
performance”.
7. If we believe that our task as teachers is to teach all
pupils/students, and that it is possible that all students,
even those from limited backgrounds, will have access to
opportunities and therefore can achieve, then the bell
curve mentality must be abandoned.

8. Assessment of learning should never be used as punishment or
as a disciplinary measure.
9. Results of learning assessment must be communicated regularly
and clearly to parents.
10. Emphasize on real world application that favors realistic
performances over out-of-context drill items.
11. To ensure learning, do formative assessment.
12. To ensure reliability of assessment results, make sure of
multiple sources.

•
Assessment in the Different Phases of
Instruction.
⫸ Prior to instruction
⫸ During instruction
⫸ After instruction
⫸ Appropriate Assessment Tools

Different Approaches
and Methods
“A thousand teachers, a thousand
methods ”
-Chinese Proverb

INTRODUCTION:
Teaching Approach,
Strategy,
Method and Technique

Teaching Approach- a set of principles, beliefs
or ideas about the nature of learning which is
translated into the classroom.
Teaching Strategy- a long term plan of action
designed to achieve a particular goal.

•Teaching Method- a systematic way of
doing something.
Teaching Technique- a well-defined
procedure used to accomplish a specific
activity or task.

Examples of
Teaching
Approaches

Teacher-centered Approach- the teacher is perceived to be
the only reliable source of information
Learner-centered Approach- the learner is also an important
resource because he/she knows something and is therefore
capable of sharing something

Subject matter-centered Approach- gains primacy
over that of the learner. It is teacher-dominated
Interactive- there will have more student talk and
less teacher talk

Teacher-dominated- only the teacher’s voice is heard.
He/she is the sole dispenser of information
Constructivist Approach- students are expected to
construct knowledge and meaning out of what they are
taught by connecting them to prior experience

“Banking” Approach- teacher deposits knowledge into
the “empty” minds of students for students to commit
to memory
Integrated Teaching Approach- the teacher connects
what he/she teaches to the other lessons of the
subject or connects his/her lessons with other subject
thus making his/her approach interdisciplinary and
multidisciplinary

Disciplinal Approach- limits the teacher to discussing
his/her lessons within the boundary of his/her subject
Collaborative Approach- welcome group work, team
work, partnerships, group discussion
Individualistic Approach- will want an individual
students working by themselves

Direct Teaching Approach- teacher
directly tells or shows or demonstrates
what is to be taught
Guided Approach- teacher guides the
learners to discover things for
himself/herself

•
Other Teaching Approaches:
1. Research-based Approach- teaching and learning are anchored
on research findings
2. Whole Child Approach- the learning process itself takes into
account not only the academic needs of the learners, but also to
their emotional, creative, psychological, spiritual and
developmental needs
3. Metacognitive Approach- the teaching process brings the
learner to the process of thinking about thinking
4. Problem-based Approach- the teaching-learning process is
focused on problems

Direct/Expository Approach
• 1. Direct Instruction/Lecture Method
-aimed at helping students acquire
procedural knowledge which is knowledge
exercised in the performance of some task.
Procedural knowledge refers to skills needed in
the performance of a task

Steps of the Direct Method
1. provide the rationale
2. demonstrate the skill
3. provide guided practice until mastery
4. check for understanding and provide feedback
5. provide extended practice and transfer
assess learning at the end

2. Demonstration Method
⫸ the teacher or an assigned student or
group shows how a process is done while
the students become observers. Employed
in presenting lessons that use
sophisticated equipment and technical
know-how.

•Advantages:
⫸ Follows a systematic order
⫸ Use of expensive equipment and machines
⫸ Wastage of time, effort and resources will be avoided
⫸ Will not result to trial-and-error learning
⫸ Findings are reliable and accurate
⫸ Value of confidence is developed
⫸ Curiosity and keen observing ability are instilled among
observers

Indirect/Guided/Exploratory Approach
• 1. Inquiry Method
⫸ provide students with opportunities to
explore, inquire and discover new learning. It
is spontaneous and self-directed exploration.

Steps in Inquiry Method
1. Define the topic or introduce the question.
2. Guide students plan where and how to gather
data and information.
3. Students present findings through graph,
charts, PowerPoint presentation, models and
writing.

• 2. Problem Solving Method
⫸ is a teaching strategy that employs the
scientific method in searching for information.
Five basic steps:
⫸ Sensing and defining the problem
⫸ Formulating hypothesis
⫸ Testing the likely hypothesis
⫸ Analysis, interpretation and evaluation of evidence
⫸ Formulating conclusion

•Advantages:
1. Most effective in developing skill in employing
the science process.
2. Can be used in other non-science subjects.
3. The student’s active involvement resulting in
meaningful experiences serves as a strong
motivation.
4. Problem-solving develops higher level thinking
skills.

5. A keen sense of responsibility, originality and
resourcefulness are developed
6. The students become appreciative and grateful
for the achievement of scientists.
7. Critical thinking, open-mindedness and wise
judgment are inculcated
8. The students learn to accept the opinions and
evidence shared by others.

• 3. Project Method
⫸ the learners solve a practical problem
over a period of several days or weeks.
⫸ a teaching method that requires the
students to present in concrete form the
results of information gathered about a
concept, principle or innovation.

•Advantages:
• 1. Emphasizes “learning by doing”
2. Constructing projects develops the students
manipulative skill
3. they become resourceful and innovative
4. The finished project ca serve as evidence of
learning achieved
5. adds to one’s feeling of accomplishment and
satisfaction

•Cooperative Learning
• -students work in groups or teams to help each
other learn
Characteristic Features:
1. It has two important components: cooperative incentive
structure and cooperative task structure
2. Students work in teams
3. Reward systems are group-oriented
4. interaction is controlled by members
5. Teams are made up of mixed abilities
6. Each individual is accountable in learning
7. The group reflects on process they underwent

•Overview of Selected Structures in Cooperative
Learning
• 1. Round robin
-teambuilding
• 2. Corners
-Class building
3. Match Mine
-Communication building
• 4. Numbered Heads Together
-mastery
5. Three-Step Interview
-concept development
6. Roundtable
-multifunctional

•Peer Tutoring/Peer Teaching
•⫸ the teacher requests the older, brighter
and more cooperative number of the class to
tutor.
a. Instructional tutoring
b. Same age tutoring
c. Monitorial tutoring
d. Structural tutoring
e. Semi-structured tutoring

• Partner Learning
-learning with a partner
-may also mean assigning “study buddy”
Guidelines for effective use:
1. To prevent from socializing, give students specific
amount of time and a specific prompt for discussion.
2. Give your students less time than you think they
actually need.

• Deductive Method
⫸ The direct method and demonstration method of
instruction are deductive method
⫸ The teacher tells or shows directly what -he/she wants
to teach
⫸ It is a teacher-dominated. Teacher begins with the
abstract rule, generalization, principle and ends with
specific examples and concrete details

• Disadvantages:
-It is not supportive of the principle that learning is an
active process. There is less involvement on the part of
the learners. -The learners do not take part in the
generalization of conclusion. The learners’ involvement
will be on the drill that come after the of the rule.
-Lesson appears uninteresting at first. We begin our
lesson with the abstract, with what the learners do not
know so at the outset our lesson will look irrelevant and
uninteresting.

• 1. Blended Learning
-It is learning that is facilitated by effective combination
of different modes of delivery modes of teaching and
styles of learning , and is based on transparent
communication amongst all parties involved with a course
-It is described as “integrative learning”, “hybrid learning”,
“multi-method learning.” “It combines classroom learning,
mobile learning, and on-line learning.”

• 2. Reflective Teaching
-students/teachers learn through an analysis and
evaluation of experience
-Without analysis, no new learning and ideas can be
constructed

• Different strategies:
1. Self-analysis
-A student/teacher engages himself/herself in self-analysis
when he/she reflects on why he/she succeeded or failed at some
work
2. Writing journals
-Journals reveal feelings about the days activities including
what could have enhanced or inhabited their learning
3. Keeping a portfolio
-Reactions which are recorded for future recall and study
that will be needed in analyzing changes in values being developed.

• 3. Metacognitive Approach
-an approach that goes beyond cognition
-makes students think about their thinking
• 4. Constructivist Approach
-an active process that results from self-constructed
meanings
-a meaningful connection is established between
prior knowledge and the present learning

• 5. Integrative Approach
-is intradisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and
transdisciplinary
-teachers integrate the sub disciplines within a
subject area.

• Problem-based Learning (PBL)
-a concrete example of transdisciplinary teaching
-it is the learning that results from the process of
working toward the understanding of the resolution of
a problem

General principles in the use of Instructional Materials:
⫸ All instructional materials are aids to instructions.
They do not replace the teacher.
⫸ Choose the instructional material that best suits your
instructional objectives.
⫸ If possible, use a variety of tools.
⫸ Check out your instructional material before class
starts to be sure it is working properly.

⫸ Learn how to use the instructional material.
 Prepare introductory remarks, questions or initial
comments you may need.
 Provide a conducive environment.
 Explain the objectives of the lesson.
 Stress what is to be watched.

•Assessment of Learning
This Chapter will be the assessment of
learning of learning and on assessment
tools in the three phases of instruction.

•Guiding Principles in the Assessment of
Learning
1. Assessment of learning is an integral part of
the teaching - learning process.
If assessment or evaluation is built into the
teaching learning process, students allergy to test
may be cured because it becomes very common and
natural to them.

2. Assessment tool should match with performance
objective.
- Which assessment tool use, which test to formulate must be
based on our performance objective.
3.The results of assessment must be fed back to the
learners.
4.In assessing learning, teachers must consider learners’,
learning styles and multiple intelligences and so must come
up with a variety of ways of assessing learning.

5. To contribute to the building of the culture of success in the school,
it is pedagogically sound that in our assessment techniques we give
some positive feedback along with not so good ones.
6. Emphasize on self-assessment.
- Danielson asserts: “assessments should not force students to
compete against one another: any competition should be between
students and their own prior performance”.
7. If we believe that our task as teachers is to teach all pupils/students,
and that it is possible that all students, even those from limited
backgrounds, will have access to opportunities and therefore can
achieve, then the bell curve mentality must be abandoned.

8. Assessment of learning should never be used as punishment or as a
disciplinary measure.
9. Results of learning assessment must be communicated regularly and
clearly to parents.
10. Emphasize on real world application that favors realistic performances
over out-of-context drill items.
11. To ensure learning, do formative assessment.
12. To ensure reliability of assessment results, make sure of multiple sources.

Assessment in the Different Phases of Instruction.
Prior to instruction
During instruction
After instruction
Appropriate Assessment Tools

Guiding Principles in Classroom Management

• “Classroom management is not teaching; it is a
necessary condition to teaching.”

As classroom managers, we manage resources
to facilitate learning, these includes: the 3Ms
⫸ Moment
⫸ Materials
⫸ Man

Principles in Classroom
Management
1. Consistent, proactive
discipline is the crux of
effective classroom
management.

“Prevention is
better than cure”
so goes the adage.
If we are
proactive in our
approach to
discipline we avoid
unnecessary
disciplinary
problems from
cropping up.

2. Establish routines for
all daily tasks and
needs.

We have not explain or instruct our pupils/ students on
how to pass papers, collect assignments, prepare for
experiments day in and day out because we have
established the routines for these everyday tasks.

• They have become habitual for each member of the class.
Students already know what to do and under what
condition. Routine procedures give rise to orderly learning
environment and maximum and optimum use of precious
time.
Doyle says, “Routinization makes classroom activities less
susceptible to breakdowns and interruptions because
students know the normal sequence of events and what is
expected of them.” (Ornstein)

3. Orchestrate smooth transitions and continuity of
momentum throughout the day.
Smooth
transitions and
continuity of
momentum
throughout the
day ensure us
that every
instructional
moment is made
us wisely.

No unnecessary
null is created
that will breed
classroom
restlessness,
which is the
father of
disciplinary
problems.

4. Strike a balance between variety and challenge in
student’s activities.

A variety of student activities will ensure that
students’ multiple intelligences and varied learning
styles are considered in the conduct of student
activities. Most of the time our activities fall
under linguistically intelligent group category.
Games that require word use, talking, and writing
will challenge linguistically intelligent students but
bore math and logic.

5. As a classroom manager, be aware of all actions
and activities in the classroom.

• Our heightened awareness of everything that is
happening in our classroom puts our pupils and students
on their toes all the time. While our back faces them
when we write on the board, our “eyes on the back of
our heads” will make our pupils and students feel that
we know what they are doing. This is what Kounin calls
with-it-ness.

• Our visibility in and outside the classroom may serve as
a deterrent in the outbreak of untoward students’
behavior. Research findings point that “effective
classroom management skills include the use of space
and proximity or movement around the classroom for
nearness to trouble spots and to encourage attention.”
(Stronge, 2002)

6. Resolve minor inattention and disruption before
they become major disruptions.

• “A stitch on time saves nine.”

We have not to
wait until our class
is out of control.
Misdemeanor has a
“riffle effect” if
not checked early.
We ought to
respond to
inappropriate
behavior promptly.

•Unit IV
Chapter 3
•DISCIPLINE

•DISCIPLINE
Discipline is controlled
behavior. It constitutes the
next important concern of
teachers as part of good
management. No matter how
well-managed a learning
environment is, students will
occasionally misbehave .
Teachers must be ready to
deal with them with utmost
care and consideration

•Some causes of disciplinary problems
 1 UNFAVORABLE LEARNING CONDITIONS
 -Overcrowded with more than the regular number of
students to a class
 -With poor lightning facilities and inadequate ventilation
 -With furniture and storage cabinets disorderly
positioned, making the collection and retrieval of tools less
efficient
 -With inappropriate seating arrangement such as
distractions can easily occur
 -Near sources of noise which obstruct understanding of
the lesson.

• 2. Teachers poor management skills
• 3. Students varied background

•How to prevent discipline problems
• Depending on the students abilities and interests,
teachers can implement group-oriented methodologies
such as :
• 1) cooperative learning approach
• 2) team learning
• 3) peer tutoring , and
• 4) group projects and collections.

• Teachers who are sensitive to possible misdirection of
efforts and interactions are fast to switch from one
technique to another as the need arises

• Of prime importance are the teachers personal
attributes such as:
• 1) patience
• 2) compassion
• 3) concern and caring attitudes
• 4) respect and trust for the others

The teachers personalities influence students behavior
The teachers teaching style will determine how the
students will respond, at times receptive, sometimes
withdrawn
Every school sets its own policies regarding maintenance of
appropriate discipline. Said policies would depend upon the
concept of discipline they believe in and the extent of the
responsibilities willingly accepted by all. Schools differ in
how they achieve and maintain good discipline.

•Following are some common practices
• 1) Discipline is the students responsibility. If they
misbehave, the teacher accept no excuses. They must
be ready for the consequences.

• 2) Discipline is the teachers’ way of establishing a
desirable student-oriented environment for learning.
• 3) Discipline is coupled with effective teaching
strategies and techniques.
• 4) Discipline is achieved through the effects of group
dynamics on behavior.
• 5) Discipline is believed to be the exclusive
responsibilty of the teachers.

• ACCEPTABLE AND EFFECTIVE
• 1) Use verbal rein forcers
• 2) use nonverbal gestures
• 3) Dialogues
• 4) Focus attention to disturbers
• 5) Award merits and demerits
• 6) Private talk to fix misunderstanding
• 7) Give students freedom to explain agitated feelings.

• UNACCEPTABLE AND INEFFECTIVE
• 1) Scolding and using of harsh words
• 2) Nagging and faultfinding
• 3) Bringing student in “detention area”
• 4) Denying a student some priveleges
• 5) Assignment of additional homework compared to the
rest can make them dislike the subject.
• 6) use of ridicule or sarcasm
• 7) Grades for academic achivement should not be affected
due to misdemeanor

•Disciplinary Interventions
TEACHER REACTION
TANGIBLE RECOGNITION
DIRECT COST
GROUP CONTINGENCY
HOME CONTINGENCY

•WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING STRATEGIES
IS/ARE EFFECTIVE FOR STUDENT BEHAVIOR
MANGEMENT ?
Proximity control
Planned ignoring
Signal interference
Removal of seductive object
Redirection

“ Self discipline connotes internal motivation for one’s
behavior, the internalization of domestic ideals and is
most evident when external regulations of behavior are
absent.”
-George Bear

ESTABLISHING
CLASSROOM ROUTINE

•Routine have to be learned
We get to used to doing them in order for them to become
routinized. It is, therefore necessary that we identify and
explain specific rules and procedures in our classroom.
When? The first days of school will be most timely. It is
also good to rehearse classroom procedures (especially for
elementary pupils) until they become routines.
Reinforcing correct procedure and re-teaching an incorrect
one will be of great help.

Some routines on the following can be of
great help:
BEGINNING AND ENDING THE CLASS
DAY OR PERIOD

• TRANSITIONS
• Management of most instructional interruptions is fully within the
teacher’s control. Transitions can either be anticipated or
unanticipated.
a. Solving pre-lesson transitions
b. Solving transitions during the lesson
c. Solving post-lesson transitions
d. Unanticipated transitions

• USE OF MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT
• Make clear your rules and procedures on the distribution and
collection of materials, storage of common materials, the
teacher’s desk and storage areas, the use of the pencil
sharpener.

• GROUP WORK
•Research shows that group work like cooperative learning
has positive impact on student achievement, interpersonal
relationships and attitudes about learning.
• SEATWORK AND TEACHING-LED ACTIVITIES

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