The Leadership Experience

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Learning Objectives CHAP 1
• Understand the full meaning of leadership
and see the leadership potential in yourself
and others
• Recognize and facilitate the six
fundamental transformations in today’s
organizations and leaders
• Identify the primary reasons for leadership
derailment and the new paradigm skills
that can help avoid it

Learning Objectives
• Recognize the traditional functions of
management and the fundamental
differences between leadership and
management
• Appreciate the crucial importance of
providing direction, alignment,
relationships, personal qualities, and
outcomes

Learning Objectives
• Explain how leadership has evolved and
how historical approaches apply to the
practice of leadership today

Exhibit 1.1 - What Leadership
Involves

Leadership
• Influencing others to come together around
a common vision
– Multidirectional
– Noncoercive
• Reciprocal in nature
• Involves creating change
• Qualities required for effective leadership
are also needed to be an effective follower

Leadership
• Effective followers are:
– Self thinkers who do assignments with
energy and enthusiasm
• Leaders are:
• Committed to the common good rather than
self-interest
• Firm in their beliefs

Exhibit 1.2 - The New Reality
for Leaders

Management and Vision
• Attainment of organizational goals in an effective
and efficient manner through:
• Planning and organizing
• Staffing and directing
• Controlling organizational resources
Management
• Picture of an ambitious, desirable future for the
organization or team
Vision

Exhibit 1.3 - Comparing
Management and Leadership
Source: Based on John P. Kotter, A Force for Change: How Leadership Differs from Management (New York: The Free Press, 1990) and ideas in Kevin
Cashman, Lead with Energy, Leadership Excellence, (December 2010) :7; Henry Mintzberg

Theories of Leadership
• Leadership was conceptualized as a single Great Man who put
everything together and influenced others to follow along
based on the strength of inherited traits, qualities, and
abilities
Great man theories
• Leaders had particular traits or characteristics that
distinguished them from non-leaders and contributed to
success
Trait theories

• Leaders’ behavior correlated with leadership effectiveness
or ineffectiveness
Behavior theories
• Leaders can analyze their situation and tailor their behavior
to improve leadership effectiveness
• Known as situational theories
• Emphasized that leadership cannot be understood in a
vacuum separate from various elements of the group or
organizational situation
Contingency theories

• Examined the influence processes between leaders
and followers
• Charismatic leadership - Influence based on the
qualities and personality of the leader
Influence theories
• Focused on how leaders and followers interact and
influence one another
• Transformational leadership and servant leadership
are two important relational theories
Relational theories

Exhibit 1.4 - Leadership
Evolution

Fatal Flaws That Cause
Derailment
• Failing to meet business objectives because of too much time
promoting themselves and playing politics, a failure to fulfill promises,
or a lack of hard work
Performance problems
• Being insensitive, manipulative, critical, and not trustworthy in
relationships with peers, direct reports, customers, and others
Problems with relationships
• Not learning from feedback and mistakes to change old behaviors
• Defensive, unable to handle pressure, and unable to change
management style to meet new demands
Difficulty changing

Fatal Flaws That Cause
Derailment
• Poor management of direct reports
• Inability to get work done through others
• Not identifying and hiring the right people
Difficulty building and leading a team
• Inability to work effectively or collaborate outside
their current function
• Failing to see big picture when moved into general
management position over several functions
Too narrow management experience

Exhibit 1.6 - Learning to Be a
Leader
Source: Based on “Guidelines for the Apprentice Leader,” in Robert J. Allio, “Masterclass: Leaders and Leadership—Many Theories, But What Advice Is Reliable?”
Strategy & Leadership 41, no. 1 (2013): 4–14.

• Outline some personal traits and
characteristics that are associated with
effective leaders
• Identify your own traits that you can
transform into strengths and bring to a
leadership role
• Distinguish among various roles leaders
play in organizations, including operations,
collaborative, and advisory roles, and
where your strengths might best fit

Learning Objectives
• Recognize autocratic versus democratic
leadership behavior and the impact of each
• Know the distinction between people-
oriented and task-oriented leadership
behavior and when each should be used

Learning Objectives
• Understand how the theory of
individualized leadership has broadened
the understanding of relationships
between leaders and followers
• Describe some key characteristics of
entrepreneurial leaders

Exhibit 2.1 - Personal
Characteristics of Leaders
Sources: Bass and Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research, and Management Applications, 3rd ed. (New York: The Free Press, 1990), pp. 80–81;
S. A. Kirkpatrick and E. A. Locke, “Leadership: Do Traits Matter?” Academy of Management Executive 5, no. 2 (1991), pp. 48–60; and James M. Kouzes and
Barry Z. Posner, The Leadership Challenge: How to Get Extraordinary Things Done in Organizations (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990)

Characteristics of Leaders
• Tendency to see the positive side of things and expect that things will
turn out well
Optimism
• Assurance in one’s own judgments, decision making, ideas, and
capabilities
Self-confidence
• Refers to truthfulness and nondeception
Honesty
• Quality of being whole, integrated, and acting in accordance with solid
ethical principles
Integrity
• High motivation that creates a high effort level by a leader
Drive

What are Strengths?
• Natural talent or ability that has been
supported and reinforced with learned
knowledge and skills
• Acts as the central point of focus in life
– Enables leadership to be based on:
• Energy
• Enthusiasm
• Effectiveness

Exhibit 2.2 - Three Types of
Leadership Roles

Behavior Approaches
• Centralizes authority and derives power from position,
control of rewards, and coercion
Autocratic
• Delegates authority, encourages participation, relies on
subordinates’ for completion of tasks, and depends on
subordinate respect for influence
• Effective if subordinates possess decision-making skills
• Effective when the skill difference between the leader
and subordinates is high
Democratic

Continuum
Source: Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from Robert Tannenbaum and Warren Schmidt, “How to Choose a Leadership Pattern” (May–
June 1973). Copyright 1973 by the president and Fellows of Harvard College

Grid®
Source: The Leadership Grid figure from Leadership Dilemma—Grid Solutions by Robert R. Blake and Anne Adams McCanse (formerly the Managerial Grid by
Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton). Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, p. 29. Copyright 1991 by Scientific Methods, Inc. Reproduced by permission of the
owners

Exhibit 2.5 - Themes of
Leader Behavior Research
Sources: Based on Marilyn R. Zuckerman and Lewis J. Hatala, Incredibly American: Releasing the Heart of Quality (Milwaukee, WI: American Society for
Quality, 1992), pp. 141–142; and Mark O’Connell, Gary Yukl, and Thomas Taber, “Leader Behavior and LMX: A Constructive Replication,” Journal of
Managerial Psychology 27, no. 2 (2012), pp. 143–154

Individualized Leadership
• Notion that a leader develops a unique
relationship with each group member,
determining:
– Leader's behavior toward the member
– Member's response to the leader

Exhibit 2.6 - Stages of Development
of Individualized Leadership
Sources: Based on Fred Danereau, “A Dyadic Approach to Leadership: Creating and Nurturing This Approach Under Fire,” Leadership
Quarterly 6, no. 4 (1995), pp. 479–490, and George B. Graen and Mary Uhl-Bien, “Relationship-Based Approach to Leadership: Development of
Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) Theory of Leadership over 25 Years: Applying a Multi-Level, Multi-Domain Approach,” Leadership
Quarterly 6, no. 2 (1995), pp. 219–247

Exhibit 2.7 - Leader Behavior Toward
In-Group versus Out-Group Members
Sources: Based on Jean François Manzoni and Jean-Louis Barsoux, “The Set-Up-to-Fail Syndrome,” Harvard Business Review (March–April 1988), pp. 110–113;
and Mark O’Donnell, Gary Yukl, and Thomas Taber, “Leader Behavior and LMX: A Constructive Replication,” Journal of Management Psychology 27, no. 2
(2012), pp. 143–154.

Entrepreneurial Traits and
Behaviors
• Entrepreneurship
– Initiating a business venture, organizing
the necessary resources, and assuming the
associated risks and rewards
• Need to be:
– Strongly driven
– Enthusiastic
– Driven by a vision

Entrepreneurial Traits and
Behaviors
• Leaders are:
– Persistent
– Independent
– Action oriented
– Drawn to new opportunities
– Innovative
– Creative
– Highly self-motivated

• Understand how leadership is often
contingent on people and situations
• Apply Hersey and Blanchard’s situational
theory of leader style to the level of follower
readiness
• Apply Fiedler’s contingency model to key
relationships among leader style,
situational favorability, and group task
performance

Learning Objectives
• Explain the path-goal theory of leadership
• Use the Vroom-Jago model to identify the
correct amount of follower participation in
specific decision situations
• Know how to use the power of situational
variables to substitute for or neutralize the
need for leadership

Contingency and Contingency
Approaches
• Theory meaning one thing depends on other
things
Contingency
• Seek to delineate the characteristics of
situations and followers and examine the
leadership styles that can be used effectively
Contingency approaches

Exhibit 3.1 - Comparing the Universalistic
and Contingency Approaches to Leadership

Exhibit 3.2 - Meta-Categories of Leader
Behavior and Four Leader Styles
Source: Based on Gary Yukl, Angela Gordon, and Tom Taber, “A Hierarchical Taxonomy of Leadership Behavior: Integrating a Half
Century of Behavior Research,” Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies 9, no. 1 (2002), pp. 15–32.

Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational
Theory - Leadership Style
• Reflects a high concern for tasks and a low concern for
people and relationships
Directing style
• Based on a high concern for both relationships and tasks
Coaching style
• Characterized by high relationship and low task behavior
Supporting style
• Reflects a low concern for both tasks and relationships
Entrusting style

Exhibit 3.3 - The Situational
Model of Leadership
Source: Based on Gary Yukl, Angela Gordon and Tom Taber, “A Hierarchial Taxonomy of Leadership Behavior: Integrating a Half Century of Behavior Research“, Journal of leadership and Organizational
Studies 9, no 1 (2002), pp. 15–32; and Paul Hersey, Kenneth Blanchard and Dewey Johnson, Management of Organizational Behavior: Utilizing Human Resources, 7th Ed (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall, 1996).

Situation
• Group atmosphere and members’ attitudes toward
and acceptance of the leader
Leader-member relations
• Extent to which tasks performed by the group are
defined, involve specific procedures, and have clear,
explicit goals
Task structure
• Extent to which the leader has formal authority over
subordinates
Position power

Exhibit 3.4 - Fiedler’s Classification:
How Leader Style Fits the Situation
Source: Based on Fred E. Fiedler, “The Effects of Leadership Training and Experience: A Contingency Model Interpretation,” Administrative Science Quarterly
17 (1972), p. 455

Exhibit 3.5 - Leader Roles in
the Path-Goal Model
Reprinted from Organizational Dynamics, 13 (Winter 1985), Bernard M. Bass, “Leadership: Good, Better, Best”, pp. 26–40, Copyright 1985, with permission
from Elsevier.

Leader Behavior
• Shows concern for subordinates’ well-being and
personal needs
• Leadership behavior is open, friendly, and
approachable, and the leader creates a team climate
and treats subordinates as equals
Supportive leadership
• Tells subordinates exactly what they are supposed to do
• Leader behavior includes planning, making schedules,
setting performance goals and behavior standards,
and stressing adherence to rules and regulations
Directive leadership

Leader Behavior
• Consults with subordinates about decisions
• Leader behavior includes asking for opinions and
suggestions, encouraging participation in decision
making, and meeting with subordinates in their
workplaces
Participative leadership
• Sets clear and challenging goals for subordinates
• Leader behavior stresses high-quality performance and
improvement over current performance
Achievement-oriented leadership

Exhibit 3.6 - Path-Goal Situations
and Preferred Leader Behaviors

Exhibit 3.7 - Five Leader
Decision Styles

Diagnostic Questions
• How significant is this decision for the project or organization?
Decision significance
• How important is subordinate commitment to carrying out the
decision?
Importance of commitment
• What is the level of the leader’s expertise in relation to the
problem?
Leader expertise
• If the leader were to make the decision alone, would
subordinates have high or low commitment to the decision?
Likelihood of commitment

Diagnostic Questions
• What is the degree of subordinate support for the team’s or
organization’s objectives at stake in this decision?
Group support for goals
• What is the level of group members’ knowledge and
expertise in relation to the problem?
Goal expertise
• How skilled and committed are group members to working
together as a team to solve problems?
Team competence

Substitutes for Leadership
• Situational variable that makes leadership
unnecessary or redundant
Substitute
• Situational characteristic that counteracts the
leadership style and prevents the leader from
displaying certain behaviors
Neutralizer

Exhibit 3.10 - Substitutes and
Neutralizers for Leadership

• Understand the importance of self-
awareness and recognize one’s blind spots
• Identify major personality dimensions and
understand how personality influences
leadership and relationships within
organizations

Learning Objectives
• Clarify instrumental and end values, and
recognize how values guide thoughts and
behavior
• Define attitudes and explain their
relationship to leader’s behavior
• Explain attributions and recognize how
perception affects the leader-follower
relationship

Learning Objectives
• Recognize individual differences in
cognitive style and broaden one’s own
thinking style to expand leadership
potential
• Understand how to lead and work with
people with varied personality traits

Self-Awareness
• Being conscious of the internal aspects of
one’s nature
– Personality traits
– Emotions
– Values
– Attitudes and perceptions
– Appreciating how your patterns affect other
people

Big Five Personality
Dimensions
• Extroversion: Degree to which a person is
outgoing, sociable, talkative, and
comfortable meeting and talking to new
people
– Characteristic of dominance
• High degree of dominance could even be
detrimental to effective leadership

Dimensions
• Agreeableness: Degree to which a person
is able to get along with others
– Being good-natured, cooperative, forgiving,
compassionate, understanding, and
trusting
• Conscientiousness: Degree to which a
person is responsible, dependable,
persistent, and achievement-oriented
– Focus on a few goals

Dimensions
• Emotional stability: Degree to which a
person is well-adjusted, calm, and secure
– Emotionally stable leader can:
• Handle stress and criticism well, and does not
take mistakes or failures personally
• Develop positive relationships
• Improve relationships
– Leaders with a low degree of emotional
stability can become tense, anxious, or
depressed

Dimensions
• Openness to experience: Degree to which
a person has a broad range of interests
and is imaginative, creative, and willing to
consider new ideas
– Important as leadership is about change

Differences in Behavior Between
Internals and Externals
Internals
• More self-motivated
• Better in control of their
own behavior
• Participate more in social
and political activities
• Actively seek information
• Better able to handle
complex information and
problem solving
Externals
• Have structured, directed
work situations
• Better able to handle work
that requires compliance
and conformity

Theory X and Theory Y
• Assumption that people are basically lazy and
not motivated to work and that they have a
natural tendency to avoid responsibility
Theory X
• Assumption that people do not inherently
dislike work and will commit themselves
willingly to work that they care about
Theory Y

Exhibit 4.3 - Attitudes and
Assumptions of Theory X and Theory Y
Source: J. Hall and S. M. Donnell, “Managerial Achievement: The Personal Side of Behavioral Theory,” Human Relations 32 (1979), pp. 77–101

Social Perception
• Making sense out of the environment by
selecting, organizing, and interpreting
information
– Values and attitudes affect perceptions, and
vice versa

Perpetual Distortions
• Errors in judgment that arise from
inaccuracies in the perceptual process
– Stereotyping: Assigning an individual to a
group and attributing generalizations about
the group to the individual
• Hinders from knowing people who are
stereotyped
– Halo effect: Overall impression of a person
or situation based on one characteristic
• Blinds the perceiver to other characteristics

Perpetual Distortions
– Projection: Tendency to see one’s own
personal traits in others
– Perceptual defense: Protecting oneself by
disregarding ideas, situations, or people
that are unpleasant

Exhibit 4.4 - Hermann’s
Whole Brain Model
Source: Ned Herrmann, The Whole Brain Business Book (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996) p. 15

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
(MBTI)™
• Measures how individuals differ in
gathering and evaluating information for
solving problems and making decisions
• Uses different pairs of attributes to classify
people in 1 of 16 different personality types
– Introversion versus extroversion
– Sensing versus intuition
– Thinking versus feeling
– Judging versus perceiving

Working with Different
Personality Types
• Leaders can work effectively by:
– Understanding one’s own personality and
how they react to others
– Treating everyone with respect
– Acknowledging each person’s strengths
– Striving for understanding
– Remembering that everyone wants to fit in

• Recognize how mental models guide
behavior and relationships
• Engage in independent thinking by staying
mentally alert, thinking critically, and
being mindful rather than mindless
• Break out of categorized thinking patterns
and opening your mind to new ideas and
multiple perspectives

Learning Objectives
• Beginning to apply systems thinking and
personal mastery to your activities at
school or work
• Exercising emotional intelligence,
including being self-aware, managing
emotions, motivating oneself, displaying
empathy, and managing relationships
• Applying the difference between motivating
others based on fear and motivating others
based on love

Developing a Leader’s Mind
Independent
Thinking
Open-
Mindedness
Systems
Thinking
Personal
Mastery

Independent Thinking
• Questioning assumptions and interpreting
data and events
• Mindfulness: State of paying attention to
new information
– Readiness to create new mental categories
during evolving circumstances
• Intellectual stimulation - Stimulating the
ability of followers to identify and solve
problems creatively

Open-Mindedness
• Putting aside preconceptions and
suspending beliefs and opinions
– Reflected well by beginner’s mind than by
expert’s mind
• Pike Syndrome - Illustrates the power of
the conditioning that limits thinking and
behavior

Systems Thinking
• Seeing the synergy of the whole and
learning to reinforce or change whole
system patterns
• Enables leaders to:
– Look for patterns of movement over time
– Focus on the factors that accomplish the
performance of the whole

Exhibit 5.3 - Systems Thinking
and Circles of Causality

Personal Mastery
• Discipline of mastering oneself
• Qualities
– Clarity of mind - Committing to the truth of
the current reality
– Clarity of objectives - Focusing on the end
result
– Organizing to achieve objectives - Bridging
the disparity between current reality and
the vision of a better future

Emotional Intelligence
• Abilities to perceive, identify, understand,
and successfully manage emotions in
oneself and others
• Leaders should understand:
– Range of emotions people have
– How emotions manifest themselves

Exhibit 5.4 - Positive and
Negative Emotions

Importance of Emotions
• Leader’s emotional state influences the team, department,
or organization
• Leaders should:
• Tune in to the emotional state of others
• Bring negative emotions to the surface
• Encourage people to explore and use positive emotion in
work
Contagious
• Leaders need a high degree of emotional intelligence to:
• Regulate their emotions
• Motivate others
Influence performance

Exhibit 5.7 - Components of
Emotional Intelligence

Leadership
Leading with love Leading with fear
• Contemporary approach • Traditional approach
• More effective • Powerful motivator
• Used when the organizational
success depends on people’s:
• Knowledge
• Mind power
• Commitment
• Creativity
• Enthusiasm
• Used when the organizational
success depends on people
following orders
• Drives people to other
organizations
• People do not perform to their real
capabilities

Fear in Organizations
Fear of failure
Fear of change
Fear of personal loss
Fear of being judged
Fear of the boss

Drawbacks of Fear
• Creates avoidance behavior
• Weakens trust and communication
• Employees feel threatened by
repercussions of speaking about work-
related concerns

Exhibit 5.8 - Indicators of Love
versus Fear in Organizations

Motivational Potential of Love
versus Fear
• Fear of losing a job
Fear-based motivation
• Feeling of being valued in the job
Love-based motivation

• Combine a rational approach to leadership
with a concern for people and ethics
• Understand how leaders set the ethical
tone in organizations and recognize the
distinction between ethical and unethical
leadership
• Recognize your own stage of moral
development and ways to accelerate your
moral maturation

Learning Objectives
• Know and use mechanisms that enhance
an ethical organizational culture
• Apply the principles of stewardship and
servant leadership
• Recognize courage in others and unlock
your own potential to live and act
courageously

Exhibit 6.2 - How to Act Like
a Moral Leader
Sources: Based on Linda Klebe Treviño, Laura Pincus Hartman, and Michael Brown, “Moral Person and Moral Manager: How Executives Develop a
Reputation for Ethical Leadership,” California Management Review 42, no. 4 (Summer 2000), pp. 128–142; Christopher Hoenig, “Brave Hearts,” CIO
(November 1, 2000), pp. 72–74; and Patricia Wallington, “Honestly?!” CIO (March 15, 2003), pp. 41–42

Becoming a Moral Leader
• Moral leadership: Distinguishing right
from wrong and doing right
– Seeking the just, honest, and good in the
practice of leadership
• Internal characteristic that influences a
leader’s capacity to make moral choices is
the individual’s level of moral development

Exhibit 6.4 - Three Levels of
Personal Moral Development
Sources: Based on Lawrence Kohlberg, “Moral Stages and Moralization: The Cognitive-Developmental Approach,” in Moral Development and Behavior Theory,
Research, and Social Issues, ed. Thomas Likona (Austin, TX: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976), 31–53; and Jill W. Graham, “Leadership, Moral Development, and
Citizenship Behavior,” Business Ethics Quarterly 5, no. 1 (January 1995), 43–54

Servant Leadership
• Leader transcends self-interest to:
– Serve the needs of others
– Help others grow
– Provide opportunities for others to gain
materially and emotionally
• Types
– Authoritarian management
– Participative management
– Stewardship

Exhibit 6.5 - Changing Leader
Focus from Self to Others

Principles for Stewardship
Adopt a partnership mindset
Give decision-making power and the authority to act to
those closest to the work and the customer
Tie rewards to contributions rather than formal
positions
Expect core work teams to build the organization

Courage
• Mental and moral strength to engage in,
persevere through, and withstand danger,
difficulty, or fear
• Accepting responsibility
• Nonconformity
• Pushing beyond the comfort zone

Courage
• Asking for what you want and saying what
you think
– Abilene paradox: Tendency to resist voicing
their true thoughts or feelings in order to
please others and avoid conflict
• Fighting for what you believe

How Does Courage Apply to
Moral Leadership
• Applying courage to:
– Be unconventional and do what is right
– Step up and take responsibility
– Balance:
• Profit with people and self-interest with service
• Control with stewardship
– Act like a moral leader
– Whistleblowing: Employee disclosure of
illegal, immoral, or unethical practices in
the organization

Finding Personal Courage
Believe in a higher purpose
Draw strength from others
Harness frustration and anger
Take small steps

• Effectively manage both up and down the
hierarchy
• Recognize your followership style and take
steps to become a more effective follower
• Understand the leader’s role in developing
effective followers

Learning Objectives
• Apply the values of effective followership,
including responsibility, service,
challenging authority, participating in
change, and knowing when to leave
• Implement the strategies for effective
followership at school or work

Learning Objectives
• Know what followers want from leaders
and what leaders expect from followers
• Use feedback and leadership coaching to
help followers grow and achieve their
potential

What Leaders Want
Make-it-happen attitude
Willingness to collaborate
Motivation to stay up-to-date
Passion to drive your own growth

Critical and Uncritical
Thinking
• Thinking independently and being mindful of the
effects of one’s own and other people’s behavior
on achieving the organization’s vision
Critical thinking
• Failing to consider possibilities beyond what one is
told
• Accepting the leader’s ideas without thinking
Uncritical thinking

Exhibit 7.2 - Followership
Styles

Exhibit 7.3 - Ways to
Influence Your Leader

Exhibit 7.4 - Sources of Power
for Managing Up

Necessary Courage to Manage
Up
Courage to assume responsibility
Courage to challenge
Courage to participate in transformation
Courage to serve
Courage to leave

Exhibit 7.5 - Rank Order of
Desirable Characteristics

Exhibit 7.6 - Follower Benefits
from Coaching

Feedback
• Using evaluation and communication to
help individuals and the organization learn
and improve
• Effective tips
– Make it timely
– Focus on the performance, not the person
– Make it specific
– Focus on the desired future, not the past

• Recognize and apply the difference
between intrinsic and extrinsic rewards
• Tap into the motives that induce people to
take action to accomplish important goals
• Motivate others by meeting their higher-
level needs
• Apply needs-based theories of motivation
and understand how the concept of equity
applies to motivation

Learning Objectives
• Describe the psychological and structural
elements of empowerment and how
empowerment contributes to motivation
• Apply the job characteristics model to
enrich jobs
• Identify factors that play a role in employee
engagement and use engagement to meet
higher level needs

Learning Objectives
• Build a thriving workforce by giving people
a sense of making progress toward
meaningful goals

Exhibit 8.1 - A Simple Model
of Motivation

Types of Rewards
• Internal satisfactions a person receives in the
process of performing a particular action
• Appeal to the higher needs of individuals
Intrinsic rewards
• Given by another person, typically a supervisor
• Pay raise and promotions
• Appeal to the lower needs of individuals
Extrinsic rewards

Exhibit 8.2 - Needs of People
and Motivation Methods

Exhibit 8.3 - Four Categories
of Motives
Source: Based on Bruce H. Jackson, “Influence Behavior: Become a Master Motivator,” Leadership Excellence (April 2010), p. 14

Needs-Based Theory of
Motivation
• Maslow’s theory proposes that humans are motivated by multiple
needs and those needs exist in a hierarchical order
Hierarchy of needs theory
• Hygiene factors: Involves the presence or absence of job dissatisfiers,
such as working conditions, pay, company policies, and interpersonal
relationships
• Motivators: Involves job satisfaction and meeting higher-level needs
such as achievement, recognition, and opportunity for growth
Two-factor theory
• McClelland’s theory proposes that certain types of needs are acquired
during an individual’s lifetime
• Need for achievement, affiliation, and power
Acquired needs theory

Exhibit 8.4 - Maslow’s Hierarchy
of Needs

Exhibit 8.5 - Herzberg’s Two-
Factor Theory

Other Motivation Theories
• Looks at the relationship between behavior and its consequences
• Behavior modification: Set of techniques by which reinforcement theory is used to
modify behavior
Reinforcement theory
• Motivation depends on individuals’ mental expectations about their ability
to perform tasks and receive desired rewards
Expectancy theory
• People are motivated to seek social equity in the rewards they receive for
performance
• State of equity - Ratio of one person’s outcomes to inputs equals the ratio of others’
in the work group
• Inequity - Input/outcome ratios are out of balance
Equity theory

Exhibit 8.6 - Shaping
Behavior with Reinforcement

Exhibit 8.7 - Key Elements of
Expectancy Theory

Exhibit 8.8 - The Job
Characteristics Model
Source: Adapted from J. Richard hackman and G.R. Oldham, “Motivation through the design of Work: Test of a Theory,” Organizational Behavior Human
Performance 16 (1976): 256

Exhibit 8.9 - The Empowerment
Continuum

The Leadership Experience

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