2. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
Electoral systems used in the UK
Majoritarian
• FPTP, SV and AV
• Single – member constituencies
• Under FPTP, all a winning
candidate needs is just 1 more
vote
• Under AV and SV, a winning
candidate needs over 50% of
the vote
• Under AV and SV a person
would have 2 votes (1st and 2nd
preference). With FPTP, he/she
would have just 1 vote
PR
• Party List (open and closed) and
STV
• Multi-member constituencies
based on a quota system
Hybrid
• AMS
• Two votes (one under FPTP for
a candidate, and one for a party
under a party list system)

3. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
Electoral systems used in the UK
Five types of electoral systems are used in the UK, more than any other democratic
country
Westminster FPTP
Local councils in England and Wales FPTP
Local councils in Scotland (after 2007) STV
European Parliament Party List
Welsh Assembly AMS
Scottish Parliament AMS
Greater London Assembly AMS
Northern Ireland Assembly STV
Mayoral elections SV

4. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
Impact of electoral reform upon the Labour Party
• PR been introduced in several areas by the Labour
government since 1997
• In the devolved assemblies Labour have shared power with
the Lib Dems in Scotland, and until recently, Wales
• Blair is against any further electoral reform, partly because
Labour have done so well out of FPTP since 1997. Brown
is also thought to be sceptical about the merits of PR
• Some Labour MPs support PR for Westminster, but the
majority of Labour MPs are opposed to such a move

5. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
Impact of electoral reform upon the Tories
• Always been against PR
• However, the party has gained more representation in
Scotland and Wales (under AMS) than it would have done
under FPTP
• Cameron is re-positioning the party towards the centre of
British politics by adopting a stance more favourable
towards minorities, speaking out in favour of a Bill of
Rights, and supporting measures to protect the
environment. He has also described himself as a “liberal
conservative.” The possibility of a Tory – Lib Dem coalition
is, therefore, a realistic option in the foreseeable future

6. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
Impact of electoral reform upon the Lib Dems
• Always been in favour of electoral reform
• Gained a share of power in Scotland and Wales since
devolution
• Likely to demand a pledge to reform the electoral system
for Westminster if the next election results in a hung
Parliament (where no one party holds a clear majority)
• Labour and the Lib Dems have moves further apart in
recent years due to the Government’s authoritarian stance
on the “war against terror”

7. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
Impact of electoral reform upon the Nationalist parties
• Done very well out of PR
• SNP and PC are the main opposition parties to Labour in
the devolved assemblies
• Northern Ireland is a different case in point because the
political parties have found it very difficult to work with each
other. The Assembly in Northern Ireland has been closed
since 2002, although elections to the Assembly continue

8. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
Impact of electoral reform upon the smaller parties and
independent candidates
• Small parties are very much in favour of PR, and have
done very well out of electoral reform
• In 1999, the Green party and the UKIP gained electoral
representation for the first time under the party list system
• In the 2004 EP elections, the UKIP came third
• Independents have also done well out of electoral reform
(e.g. half of all mayors are independent of any political
party)

9. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
Impact of electoral reform upon UK politics (1)
• Increased representation for the smaller parties, and
independents. The Tories have also benefited from PR in
the Scottish Parliament
• Has led to coalitions in the devolved assemblies
• Initially strengthened ties between Labour and the Liberal
Democrats; which formed part of Blair’s strategy to make
this the “progressive’s century”
• Has resulted in a ‘two-tier system’ of elected
representatives in Scotland and Wales (those elected
under FPTP, and those elected under the party list system)
• Devolution has imposed a financial burden on the English,
who subside each Scot by around £ 1, 000 a year based on
the Barnett formula

10. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
Impact of electoral reform upon UK politics (2)
• Led to policy divergence over a number of issues (e.g.
Higher Education, bus travel for pensioners and care for
the elderly is ‘free’ in Scotland)
• Done little to resolve the problem of voter apathy
• The cost of the Scottish Parliament went well over-budget
• The representation of women has improved dramatically
(40% of elected representatives in the Scottish Parliament,
and 50% of the Welsh Assembly, are women)
• Has raised the problematic West Lothian question, to which
no party has a satisfactory answer
• Raised the possibility of electoral reform at Westminster
(see next slide)

11. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
Should PR be used for elections to Westminster? Yes
• PR is a fairer system than FPTP
• More democratic, as representation would be based upon a more
equitable basis
• Avoids discrimination against third parties
• Would lead to a more consensual, rather than adversarial, style of
politics
• A coalition would avoid the thorny issue raised by the 2005 GE, when
just 1 in 5 of the electorate voted Labour
• Avoids wasted votes
• Would probably increase the representation of women and ethnic
minorities
• May encourage a higher level of voter turnout
• PR and coalitions can work well, as in the case of the Scottish
Parliament

12. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
Should PR be used for elections to Westminster? No
• Would probably result in weaker government
• May result in unstable coalitions, as is the case in Italy
• The link between an MP and his / her constituents might be
lost
• Might result in a cross-party consensus that actually
restricts voter choice. This could increase support for
extremist parties such as the BNP
• Would give too much power to third parties, particularly the
Liberal Democrats
• Some types of PR, such as STV, are complex and might
struggle to acquire popular support
• There is no cross-party consensus over what system of PR
to use. Each one has its flaws

13. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
Prospects for electoral reform
• As with parliamentary and constitutional reform, the
Government has lost enthusiasm for further changes
• John Prescott, a firm opponent of PR, was appointed head
of a committee “considering electoral reform” in May 2005.
This was a very clear indication that electoral reform was
off the Government’s agenda
• The Liberal Democrats are strongly in favour of reform,
whilst the Conservatives are against further electoral
reform. Labour is divided on this issue, but the leadership is
in favour of retaining FPTP at Westminster
• Further electoral reform is therefore unlikely in the
foreseeable future. Indeed, it is one of the few areas of
ideological difference between the political parties

14. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
Lords reform since 1997
• 1997 – Labour government elected on a mandate of radical
parliamentary reform
• 1999 – The government abolished most hereditary peers,
but 92 were retained
• 1999 – Wakeham Commission recommended a 550
member House, with 65 – 195 elected, and appointed
members serving a period of 15 years
• 2000 – People’s peers initiative launched
• 2001 – Government pledged to make the Lords “more
representative and democratic”
• 2001 – White paper recommended electing 20% of the
Lords (since been abandoned)

15. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
Lords reform since 2003
• 2003 – Commons voted on 7 options for reform, all of
which were rejected
• 2003 – Queen’s speech promised to remove all hereditary
peers
• 2004 – Government drops plans to abolish all hereditary
peers
• 2005 – Labour’s manifesto pledged “a review of the Lords,
to place limits of the time spent on deliberation, to remove
the remaining hereditary peers, and to allow a free vote on
the future composition of the Lords (including a
referendum)”
• 2006 – The “loans for peerages” scandal gave further
impetus for reform of the upper chamber

16. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
The House of Lords – four options for change
• Abolish the Lords, and adopt a unicameral structure
• Part elected, part appointed (Blair’s preferred option)
• Elected Chamber (Gordon Brown’s preferred option)
• Retain the status quo

17. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
Arguments in favour of the abolition of the Lords
• It is inherently undemocratic
• Having two chambers delays the legislative process
• The Lords powers are so weak that it would be better to
strengthen the role of MPs. This would result in more
effective scrutiny of the executive
• Initiatives taken since 1999 have exposed several problems
with the existence of an unelected second chamber (e.g.
the people’s peers have been criticised by the Tories as
little more than “Tony’s cronies”)

18. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
A part elected, part appointed, second chamber
• “Best of both worlds.” Combines all the advantages of an
elected chamber with the merits of an appointed chamber
• The only problematic issue is what proportion of peers
should be elected / appointed. In 2003, the proposal for an
80% elected / 20% appointed system almost gained the
approval of Parliament
• An elected / appointed chamber is therefore likely to be the
basis for any further reform of the Lords
• Plans are due to resurface in the winter of 2006

19. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
Arguments for an elected 2nd chamber
• Brings the UK up-to-date with the rest of the world
• Representatives would be elected and therefore
accountable - and hold legitimacy because they would have
gained consent from the people
• More democratic to have 2 elected chambers
• Might result in greater levels of political participation,
although the recent trend has been towards voter apathy
• Elected representatives are more likely to remain ‘in touch’
with society. This would therefore make the Lords more
relevant to modern Britain

20. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
Arguments for maintaining the status quo
• The Lords does its job effectively, with its defence of civil liberties and
highly-respected committee work
• Anything that replaces it could be worse. For example, having an
elected second chamber would duplicate the House of Commons; and
could therefore be seen as unnecessary. Elected peers would also be
constrained by the party whips
• The expertise and ability of existing peers justifies their continued
existence, as does the independence of the cross-benchers
• Avoids the gridlock common in the United States
• Part of our British heritage
• The conservative with a small ‘c’ argument against any form of change
(“If it ain’t broke, why fix it?”)

21. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
Should Britain adopt a codified constitution?
NO
• The present system is very
flexible
• A written constitution is
unnecessary, because our
system is relatively democratic
and widely accepted by the
main political parties
• A written constitution is
undesirable, because it would
give judges too much power, as
in the United States
• A written constitution is
unachievable, because there is
no cross-party consensus at the
present time
YES
• Would limit the powers of the
“elected dictatorship”
• Would be more democratic, as
is the case with the United
States
• A Constitutional court would
help to clarify constitutional
matters
• Would provide Britain with a
more open system of
government

22. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
Constitutional reform – where are we now?
• After major changes since 1997, the Government is unlikely to go any
further along the path of constitutional reform. Devolution to regional
assemblies in England is also off the Government’s agenda at the
present time. However, it is rumoured that Gordon Brown (Blair’s likely
successor) is in favour of some elements of constitutional reform, such
as a codified constitution
• The Liberal Democrats are strongly in favour of further reform,
including a Bill of Rights. They believe the Government has “not gone
far enough”, as does the pressure group Charter 88.
• The Conservatives wish to replace the Human Rights Act with a US-
style Bill of Rights; but they have largely accepted the changes made
by Labour since 1997
• Nationalist parties continue to campaign for independence, but they
have little real influence

23. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
Summary of constitutional reform
• The UK Constitution has undergone the most significant
period of reform since the expansion of the franchise in the
19th century. However, the Constitution remains uncodified
and a product of the UK’s conservative with a small ‘c’
political culture
• The Government has clearly lost interest in reform since
the 2001 General Election, although constitutional reform
will undoubtedly form part of Blair’s legacy. Changes made
since 1997 have also formed part of a post-Blair
consensus, in that the Tories have largely accepted those
reforms

24. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
Impact of constitutional reform since 1997
POSITIVES
• Devolution has facilitated a greater use of innovative ideas (e.g. the
congestion charge), helped to establish a fragile peace in Northern
Ireland, and is a reflection of cultural and regional differences within the
UK
• Human rights have been strengthened
• The FOIA has led to a more open form of Government
• Established a more proportional reflection of voter’s wishes
• Reform of the Lords has improved the effectiveness (and
assertiveness) of the upper chamber
• Changes made since 1997 have worked reasonably well, and gained a
degree of cross-party support at Westminster
• By reaching a compromise position between unionism and
nationalism, devolution may have actually prevented the break-up of
the UK

25. Politics – Constitutional, Parliamentary & Electoral Reform
Impact of constitutional reform since 1997
NEGATIVES
• The Human Rights Act has been largely ineffective, and the Freedom
of Information Act has been manipulated by the Government to score
political points
• Devolution has raised the problematic West Lothian question
• Constitutional reform has done little to resolve the problem of voter
apathy in the UK
• Political power is still centralised in the hands of the executive
• Constitution reform has not gone far enough, as Britain remains a
unitary state with an uncodified constitution
• From the opposite viewpoint, constitutional reform has gone too far and
weakened the unity of the UK