respiratory Allied.HS.ppt

The organs of the respiratory system are:
• nose
• pharynx
• larynx
• trachea
• two bronchi (one bronchus to each lung)
• bronchioles and smaller air passages
• two lungs and their coverings, the pleura
• • muscles of respiration — the intercostal
muscles and
• the diaphragm.

Position and structure
• The nasal cavity is the first of the respiratory
organs
• consists of a large irregular cavity divided
into two equal passages by a septum.
• The posterior bony part of the septum is
formed by the perpendicular plate of the
• ethmoid bone and the vomer.
• Anteriorly it consists of hyaline cartilage

The roof is formed by the cribriform plate of ethmoid
bone, and the sphenoid bone, frontal bone and nasal bones.
The floor is formed by the roof of the mouth and
consists of the hard palate in front and the soft palate
behind.
• The hard palate is composed of the maxilla and palatine bones
• The soft palate consists of involuntary muscle.
• The medial wall is formed by the septum.
• The lateral walls are formed by the maxilla, the
ethmoid bone and the inferior conchae.
• The posterior wall is formed by the posterior wall of
the pharynx.

Lining of the nose
• The nose is lined with very vascular ciliated
columnar epithelium.
• Which contains mucus-secreting goblet cells’
Openings into the nasal cavity
• The anterior nares, or nostrils, are the
openings from the exterior into the nasal
cavity. Hairs are present in this area.
• The posterior nares are the openings from the
nasal cavity into the pharynx.

paranasal sinuses are cavities in the bones of the
face and cranium which contain air.
There are tiny openings between the paranasal sinuses
and the nasal cavity.
• They are lined with mucous membrane, continuous
with that of the nasal cavity.
The main sinuses are:
• • maxillary sinuses in the lateral walls
• • frontal and sphenoidal sinuses in the roof.
• • ethmoidal sinuses in the upper part of the lateral
• walls

Paranasal Sinuses
Slide
 Cavities within bones surrounding the
nasal cavity
Frontal bone
Sphenoid bone
Ethmoid bone
Maxillary bone

Paranasal Sinuses
Slide
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
 Function of the sinuses
 Lighten the skull
 Act as resonance chambers for speech
• Produce mucus that drains into the nasal cavity.
• The nasolacrimal ducts extend from the lateral walls
of the nose to the conjunctival sacs of the eye
They drain tears from the eyes

The function of the nose is to begin the process by
which the air is warmed, moistened and 'filtered'.
Warming. This is due to the immense vascularity of the
mucosa.
Filtering and cleaning of air.
• Hairs at the anterior nares trap larger particles.
• Smaller particles such as dust and microbes settle and
adhere to the mucus.
• Mucus protects the underlying epithelium from
irritationand prevents drying.
• Synchronous beating of the cilia wafts the mucus
towards the throat where it is swallowed or expectorated.

Humidification.
• This occurs as air travels over the moist
mucosa and becomes saturated with water vapour.
• Irritation of the nasal mucosa results in
sneezing, a reflexaction that forcibly expels an
irritant.

Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
Slide
 Lateral walls have projections called conchae
Increases surface area
Increases air turbulence within the nasal cavity

Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
Slide
 Olfactory receptors are located in the
mucosa on the superior surface
 The rest of the cavity is lined with
respiratory mucosa
Moistens air
Traps incoming foreign particles

• The pharynx is a tube 12 to 14 cm long that extends from
• the base of the skull to the level of the 6th cervical
vertebra.
• Structures associated with the pharynx
• Superiorly — the inferior surface of the base of the
skull
• Inferiorly — it is continuous with the oesophagus
• Anteriorly — the wall is incomplete because of the
openings into the nose, mouth and larynx
• Posteriorly — areolar tissue, involuntary muscle and
the bodies of the first six cervical vertebrae

Pharynx (Throat)
Slide 13.6
 Muscular passage from nasal cavity to larynx
 Three regions of the pharynx
Nasopharynx – superior region behind nasal
cavity
Oropharynx – middle region behind mouth
Laryngopharynx – inferior region attached to
larynx
 The oropharynx and laryngopharynx are common
passageways for air and food.

The nasopharynx
• Lies behind the nose above the level of the soft
palate.
• On its lateral walls are the two openings of the
auditory tubes, one leading to each middle ear.
• On the posterior wall there are the pharyngeal
tonsils (adenoids), consisting of lymphoid
tissue.
The oropharynx. The oral part of the pharynx lies
• behind the mouth, extending from below the
level of the soft palate to the level of the upper
part of the body of the 3rd cervical vertebra.
• The lateral walls of the pharynx blend with the
soft palate to form two folds on each side.

• Between each pair of folds there is a collection of
lymphoid tissue called the palatine tonsil.
• During swallowing, the nasal and oral parts are
separated
by the soft palate and the uvula.
The laryngopharynx.
The laryngeal part of the pharynx
• extends from the oropharynx above and continues as
the oesophagus below, i.e. from the level of the 3rd to
the 6th cervical vertebrae.

Structure
The pharynx is composed of three layers of tissue:
1. Mucous membrane lining.
• The mucosa varies slightly In the
nasopharynx it is continuous with the
lining of the nose and consists of ciliated
columnar epithelium.
• in the oropharynx and laryngopharynx it
is formed by tougher stratified squamous
epithelium which is continuous with the
lining of the mouth and oesophagus.

2. Fibrous tissue. This forms the intermediate
layer.
• It is thicker in the nasopharynx, where there
is little muscle and becomes thinner towards
the lower end, where the muscle layer is
thicker.
3. Muscle tissue.
• This consists of several involuntary
constrictor muscles that play an important
part in the mechanism of swallowing
• The upper end of the oesophagus is closed
by the lower constrictor muscle, except
during swallowing.

Blood and nerve supply
• Blood is supplied to the pharynx by branches
of facial artery.
• The venous return is into the facial and
internal jugular veins.
The nerve supply is from the pharyngeal
plexus,
• formed by parasympathetic and sympathetic
nerves.
• Parasympathetic supply is by the vagus and
glossopharyngeal nerves.
• Sympathetic supply is by nerves from the
superior cervical ganglia

• formed by the pharyngeal branches from the vagus
and glossopharyngeal nerves and the cervical

Functions
Passageway for air and food.
• The pharynx is an organ involved in both the respiratory and
the digestive systems:
• Warming and humidifying.
• By the same methods as in the nose, the air is further
warmed and moistened.
Taste.
• .

Hearing.
• The auditory tube, extending from the nasal part to each middle
ear, allows air to enter the middle ear.
• Satisfactory hearing depends on the presence of air at
• atmospheric pressure on each side of the tympanic membrane
Protection.
lymphatic tissue of the pharyngeal and laryngeal tonsils produces
antibodies in response to antigens,e.g. microbes.
Speech.
• The pharynx functions in speech; by acting as a
resonating chamber for the sound ascending from the
larynx,
• it helps (together with the sinuses) to give the
voice its individual characteristics.

Structures of the Pharynx
Slide 13.7
 Auditory tubes enter the nasopharynx
 Tonsils of the pharynx
Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids) in the nasopharynx
Palatine tonsils in the oropharynx
Lingual tonsils at the base of the tongue

Position
• The larynx or 'voice box' extends from the root of the
tongue and the hyoid bone to the trachea.
• It lies in front of the laryngopharynx at the level of the
3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th cervical vertebrae.
• Until puberty there is little difference in the size of the
larynx between the sexes.
• Thereafter it grows larger in the male, which explains
the prominence of the 'Adam's apple' and the
generally deeper voice.

• Structures associated with the larynx
• Superiorly — the hyoid bone and the root of the tongue
• Inferiorily — it is continuous with the trachea
• Anteriorly — the muscles attached to the hyoid bone
and the muscles of the neck
• Posteriorly — the laryngopharynx and 3rd to 6th
cervical vertebrae
• Laterally — the lobes of the thyroid gland

• Structure
• Cartilages
• The larynx is composed of several irregularly shaped
cartilages attached to each other by ligaments and
membranes.
• The main cartilages are:
• • 1 thyroid cartilage
• • 1 cricoid cartilage
• • 2 arytenoid cartilages
• • 1 epiglottis ------- elastic fibrocartilage

• The thyroid cartilage .
• This is the most prominent and consists of two flat
pieces of hyaline cartilage, or laminae, fused
anteriorly, forming the laryngeal prominence (Adam's
apple).
• Immediately above the laryngeal prominence the
laminae are separated, forming a V-shaped notch
known as the thyroid notch.

• cartilage is incomplete posteriorly and the posterior
border of each lamina is extended to form two
processes called the superior and inferior cornu.
• The upper part of the thyroid cartilage is lined with
stratified squamous epithelium like the larynx, and
the lower part with ciliated columnar epithelium like
the trachea.
• There are many muscles attached to its outer surface

• The cricoid cartilage
• This lies below the thyroidbcartilage and is also
composed of hyaline cartilage.
• It is shaped like a signet ring, completely encircling the
larynx with the narrow part anteriorly and the broad
part posteriorly. The broad posterior part articulates
with the arytenoid cartilages above and with the inferior
cornu of the thyroid
cartilage below.
• It is lined with ciliated columnar epithelium and there
are muscles and ligaments attached to its outer
surface .
• The lower border of the cricoid cartilage marks the end
of the upper respiratory tract.

• The arytenoid cartilages.
• These are two roughly pyramid-shaped hyaline
cartilages situated on top of the broad part of the
cricoid cartilage forming part of the posterior wall of
the larynx.
• They give attachment to the vocal cords and to
muscles and are lined with ciliated columnar
epithelium

• The epiglottis.
• This is a leaf-shaped fibroelastic cartilage
• attached to the inner surface of the anterior wall of
the thyroid cartilage immediately below the thyroid notch.
• It rises obliquely upwards behind the tongue and the
body of the hyoid bone.
• It is covered with stratified squamous epithelium.
o If the larynx is likened to a box then the epiglottis acts
as the lid; it closes off the larynx during swallowing,
Ligaments and membranes
• There are several ligaments that attach the cartilages to
each other and to the hyoid bone

Blood and nerve supply
• Blood is supplied to the larynx by the superior and
inferior
laryngeal arteries.
• drained by the thyroid veins, which join the internal
jugular vein.
parasympathetic nerve supply is from the
superior
laryngeal and recurrent laryngeal nerves,
• which are branches of the vagus nerves.
Sympathetic nerves are from the superior
cervical ganglia, one on each side.
• These provide the motor nerve supply to the muscles of
the larynx and sensory fibres to the lining membrane.

Interior of the larynx
• The vocal cords are two pale folds of mucous
membrane with cord-like free edges which extend from
the inner wall of the thyroid prominence anteriorly to
the arytenoid cartilages posteriorly.
• When the muscles controlling the vocal cords are
relaxed, the vocal cords open and the passageway for
air coming up through the larynx is clear; the vocal
cords are said to be abducted .
• The pitch of the sound produced by vibrating the vocal
cords in this position is low.
• When not in use, the vocal cords are adducted.

Functions
Production of sound.
• Sound has the properties of pitch, volume and resonance.
• • Pitch of the voice depends upon the length and
tightness of the cords.
• At puberty, the male vocal cords begin to grow longer,
hence the lower pitch of the adult male voice.
• • Volume of the voice depends upon the force with which
the cords vibrate.
• The greater the force of expired air the more the cords
vibrate and the louder the sound emitted.
• • Resonance, or tone, is dependent upon the shape of the
mouth, the position of the tongue and the lips, the facial
muscles and the air in the paranasal sinuses

• Speech. This occurs during expiration when the
sounds
• produced by the vocal cords are manipulated by the
tongue, cheeks and lips.
• Protection of the lower respiratory tract.
• During swallowing (deglutition) the larynx moves
upwards,
• occluding the opening into it from the pharynx.
• Passageway for air.
• This is between the pharynx and trachea.
• Humidifying, filtering and warming. These continue as
• inspired air travels through the larynx

• Position
• The trachea or windpipe is a continuation of the
larynx and extends downwards to about the level of
the 5th thoracic vertebra where it divides (bifurcates)
at the carina into the right and left bronchi,
• one bronchus going to each lung.
• The trachea is composed of from 16 to 20 incomplete
(C-shaped) rings of hyaline cartilages lying one
above the other. The cartilages are incomplete
posteriorly.
• Connective tissue and involuntary muscle join the
cartilages
• and form the posterior wall where they are
incomplete.

• There are three layers of tissue which 'clothe' the
cartilages of the trachea.
The outer layer. This consists of fibrous and elastic
• tissue and encloses the cartilages
The middle layer. This consists of cartilages and
• bands of smooth muscle that wind round the trachea
in a
helical arrangement.
• There is some areolar tissue, containing blood and
lymph vessels and autonomic nerves.
The inner lining. This consists of ciliated columnar
• epithelium, containing mucus-secreting goblet cells

• Structures associated with the trachea
• Superiorly —the larynx
• Inferiorly —the right and left bronchi
• Anteriorly ---- upper part: the isthmus of the
thyroid
gland
• lower part: the arch of the aorta
and
the sternum
• Posteriorly —the oesophagus separates the
trachea from the vertebral column
• Laterally — the lungs and the lobes of thyroid
gland.

• Blood and nerve supply, lymph drainage
The arterial blood supply.
• This is mainly by the inferior thyroid and bronchial
arteries
• venous return is by the inferior thyroid veins into the
brachiocephalic veins.
• The nerve supply. This is by parasympathetic and
sympathetic fibres.
• Parasympathetic supply is by the recurrent
laryngeal nerves and other branches of the vagi.
• Sympathetic supply is by nerves from the
sympathetic
ganglia.
• Lymph. Lymph from the respiratory passages passes

Functions
• Support and patency.
• The arrangement of cartilage and elastic tissue
prevents kinking and obstruction of the airway.
• The cartilages prevent collapse of the tube when the
internal pressure is less than intrathoracic pressure,
i.e. at the end of
forced expiration.
• Mucociliary escalator. This is the synchronous
and
• regular beating of the cilia of the mucous membrane
• lining that wafts mucus with adherent particles
upwards
• towards the larynx where it is swallowed or
expectorated

• Cough reflex. Nerve endings in the larynx, trachea and
• bronchi are sensitive to irritation that generates nerve
Impulses
• The abdominal and respiratory muscles then contract
and suddenly the air is released under pressure expelling
mucus and/or foreign material from the mouth.
• Warming, humidifying and filtering of air. These
• continue as in the nose, although air is normally
saturated
• and at body temperature when it reaches the trachea

• The two primary bronchi are formed when the
tracheadivides, i.e. about the level of the 5th
thoracic vertebra.
The right bronchus. This is wider, shorter and more
• vertical than the left bronchus.
• therefore the more likely of the two to become
obstructed by an inhaled foreign body.
• It is approximately 2.5 cm long.
• After entering the right lung at the hilum it
divides into three branches, one to each lobe.
• Each branch then subdivides into numerous
smaller branches

• The left bronchus.
• This is about 5 cm long and is narrower than the right.
• After entering the lung at the hilum it divides into two
branches, one to each lobe.
• Each branch then subdivides into progressively
smaller tubes within the lung substance.

Structure
• They are lined with ciliated columnar epithelium.
• The bronchi progressively subdivide into
bronchioles
• terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles,
alveolar ducts and finally, alveoli.
• Towards the distal end of the bronchi the cartilages
become irregular in shape and are absent at
bronchiolar level.
• In the absence of cartilage the smooth muscle in
the walls of the bronchioles becomes thicker and is
responsive to autonomic nerve stimulation and
irritation.
• Ciliated columnar mucousmembrane changes
gradually to non-ciliated cuboidal shaped cells in

• Blood and nerve supply, lymph drainage
The arterial blood supply. The supply to the walls of
• the bronchi and smaller air passages is through
branches
• of the right and left bronchial arteries.
• venous return is mainly through the bronchial veins.
• On the right side they empty into the azygos vein
and on the left into the superior intercostal vein.
• The nerve supply.
• This is by parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves.
• The vagus nerves (parasympathetic) stimulate
contraction of smooth muscle in the bronchial tree,
causing bronchoconstriction,
• sympathetic stimulation causes bronchodilatation

• The lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes.
• Lymph is drained from the walls of the air
passages in a network of lymph vessels.
• It passes through lymph nodes situated
around the trachea and bronchial tree then
into the thoracic duct on the left side and
right lymphatic duct on the other.

Structure
• Lobules are the blind ends of the respiratory tract distal
to the terminal bronchioles, consisting of: respiratory
bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveoli (tiny air sacs)
• It is in these structures that the process of gas
exchange occurs.
• The walls gradually become thinner until muscle and
connective tissue fade out leaving a single layer of
simple squamous epithelial cells in the alveolar ducts
and alveoli.

• These distal respiratory passages are supported by a
loose network of elastic connective tissue in which
macrophages, fibroblasts, nerves and blood and
lymph vessels are embedded.
• The alveoli are surrounded by a network of capillaries.
• The exchange of gases during respiration takes place
across two membranes, the alveolar and capillary
membranes

• Interspersed between the squamous cells are other
cells that secrete surfactant, a phospholipid fluid
which prevents the alveoli from drying out.
• In addition, surfactant reduces surface tension and
prevents alveolar walls collapsing during expiration.
Secretion of surfactant into the distal air passages and
alveoli begins about the 35th week of fetal life.
• Its presence in newborn babies facilitates expansion of
the lungs and the establishment of respiration.
• It may not be present in sufficient amounts in the
immature lungs of premature babies, causing difficulty
in establishing respiration

• Position and associated structures
• There are two lungs, one lying on each side of the
midline
in the thoracic cavity.
• They are cone-shaped and are described as having an
apex, a base, costal surface and medial surface.
• The apex. This is rounded and rises into the root of
the neck, about 25 mm (1 inch) above the level of the
middle third of the clavicle.
• The structures associated with it are the first rib and
the blood vessels and nerves in the root of the neck.

The base. This is concave and semilunar in shape and is
closely associated with the thoracic surface of the diaphragm.
The costal surface. This surface is convex and is
• closely associated with the costal cartilages, the ribs and
• the intercostal muscles.
The medial surface. This surface is concave and has
a roughly triangular-shaped area, called the hilum, at the
level of the 5th, 6th and 7th thoracic vertebrae.

• Structures which form the root of the lung
enter and leave at the hilum. These include
• primary bronchus
• pulmonary artery supplying the lung.
• Two pulmonary veins draining it, the
• bronchial artery and veins, and the lymphatic and nerve supply.
• The area between the lungs is the mediastinum.
• It is occupied by the heart, great vessels, trachea, right and
• left bronchi, oesophagus, lymph nodes, lymph vessels and nerve

• Organisation of the lungs
• The right lung is divided into three distinct
lobes:
• superior, middle and inferior.
• The left lung is smaller as the heart is
situated left of the midline. It is divided into
only two lobes:
• Superior a nd inferior.
• FISSURES & LOBES OF LUNGS
• FISSURES
• The oblique fissure (in both right & left lungs) cuts into the
whole thickness of the lung, except at the hilum.
• It passes obliquely downward & forwards, crossing the
posterior border of lung about 6 cm below the apex &

• In the right lung, horizontal fissures passes from
the anterior border of lung to the oblique fissure &
sepaeates a wedge-shaped middle lobe from the
upper border.
• The fissure runs horizontally at the level of 4th costal
cartilage & meets the oblique fissure in the
midaxillary line.
• The tongue-shaped projection of the lung below the
cardiac notch is called lingula.
• It corresponds to the middle lobe of the right lung.

• Pleura and pleural cavity
• The pleura consists of a closed sac of serous
membrane (one for each lung) which contains a small
amount of serous fluid.
• The lung is invaginated into this sac so that it forms
two layers:
• one adheres to the lung and the other
• to the wall of the thoracic cavity (Figs 10.1 and 10.16).
The visceral pleura. This is adherent to the lung,
• covering each lobe and passing into the fissures
which separate them.

The parietal pleura. This is adherent to the inside of
the chest wall and the thoracic surface of the
diaphragm.
• It remains detached from the adjacent structures in
the
mediastinum and is continuous with the visceral
pleura
round the edges of the hilum.
The pleural cavity. This is only a potential space.
• In health, the two layers of pleura are separated by
only a thin film of serous fluid which allows them to
glide over each other, preventing friction between
them during breathing.
• The serous fluid is secreted by the epithelial cells of
the membrane

Pulmonary blood supply (Fig. 10.17)
• The pulmonary artery divides into two,
• one branch conveying deoxygenated blood to
each lung.
• Within the lungs each pulmonary artery divides
into many branches which eventually end in a
dense capillary network around the walls of the
alveoli.
• The walls of the alveoli and those of the
capillaries each consist of only one layer of
flattened epithelial cells.
• The exchange of gases between air in the alveoli
and blood in the capillaries takes place across
these two very fine membranes.

• The pulmonary capillaries join up, eventually
• becoming two pulmonary veins in each lung.
They leave
• the lungs at the hilum and convey oxygenated
blood to the left atrium of the heart.
• The innumerable blood capillaries and blood
vessels in the lungs are supported by connective
tissue.

• The immediate postcapillary venules are similar
structurally to capillaries, with pericytes.
• range in diameter from 15 to 20 m.
• Postcapillary venules participate in the exchanges
between the blood and the tissues.
• As the primary site at which white blood cells leave the
circulation at sites of infection or tissue damage.
• These venules converge into larger collecting
venules
• have more contractile cells.
• With greater size the venules become surrounded by
recognizable tunica media with two or three smooth
muscle layers and are called muscular venules.
• A characteristic feature of all venules is the large
diameter of the lumen compared to the overall
thinness of the wall

• The mediastinum is the central compartment of the
thoracic cavity, located between the two pleural sacs.
• Anatomically, the mediastinum is divided into two
parts by an imaginary line that runs from the sternal
angle (the angle formed by the junction of the sternal
body and manubrium) to the T4 vertebrae:
• Superior mediastinum – extends upwards,
terminating at the superior thoracic aperture.
• Inferior mediastinum – extends downwards,
terminating at the diaphragm. It is further subdivided
into the anterior mediastinum, middle mediastinum
and posterior mediastinum.

• Inflation and deflation of the lungs occurring with
each
• breath ensures that regular exchange of gases
takes place between the alveoli and the external air.
• Muscles of respiration
• The expansion of the chest during inspiration
occurs as a result of muscular activity, partly
voluntary and partly involuntary.
• The main muscles of respiration in normal quiet
breathing are the intercostal muscles and the
diaphragm.
• During deep breathing they are assisted by the

• Intercostal muscles
• There are 11 pairs of intercostal muscles that
occupy the
• spaces between the 12 pairs of ribs. They are
arranged in two layers, the external and internal
intercostal muscles (Fig. 10.19).
• The external intercostal muscle fibres.
These extend in a downwards and forwards
direction from the lower border of the rib above
to the upper border of the rib below.

• The internal intercostal muscle fibres.
• These extend in a downwards and backwards
direction from the lower border of the rib above to
the upper border of the rib below, crossing the
external intercostal muscle fibres at right angles.
• The first rib is fixed. Therefore, when the intercostal
muscles contract they pull all the other ribs
towards the
first rib.
• Because of the shape of the ribs they move
outwards when pulled upwards.
• In this way the thoracic cavity is enlarge
anteroposteriorly and laterally.
• The intercostal muscles are stimulated to contract
by the

• Diaphragm
• The diaphragm is a dome-shaped structure separating the
thoracic and abdominal cavities. It forms the floor of the
thoracic cavity and the roof of the abdominal cavity
• consists of a central tendon from which muscle fibres
• radiate to be attached to the lower ribs and sternum and
• to the vertebral column by two crura.
• When the muscle of the diaphragm is relaxed, the central
tendon is at the level of the 8th thoracic vertebra (Fig. 10.20).
• When it contracts, its muscle fibres shorten and the central
tendon is
pulled downwards to the level of the 9th thoracic vertebra,
enlarging the thoracic cavity in length

• This decreases pressure in the thoracic cavity
and increases it in the abdominal and pelvic
cavities.
• The diaphragm is supplied by the phrenic
nerves.
• The intercostal muscles and the diaphragm
contract
simultaneously ensuring the enlargement of the
thoracic
cavity in all directions, that is from back to front,
side to
side and top to bottom (Fig. 10.21).

Trachea (Windpipe)
Slide
 Connects larynx with bronchi
 Lined with ciliated mucosa
Beat continuously in the opposite direction of
incoming air
Expel mucus loaded with dust and other
debris away from lungs
 Walls are reinforced with C-shaped
hyaline cartilage

Primary Bronchi
Slide
 Formed by division of the trachea
 Enters the lung at the hilus
(medial depression)
 Right bronchus is wider, shorter,
and straighter than left
 Bronchi subdivide into smaller
and smaller branches

Lungs
Slide
 Occupy most of the thoracic cavity
Apex is near the clavicle (superior portion)
Base rests on the diaphragm (inferior
portion)
Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures
Left lung – two lobes
Right lung – three lobes

Lungs
Slide
Figure 13.4b

Coverings of the Lungs
Slide
 Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the
lung surface
 Parietal pleura lines the walls of the
thoracic cavity
 Pleural fluid fills the area between
layers of pleura to allow gliding

Respiratory Tree Divisions
Slide
 Primary bronchi
 Secondary bronchi
 Tertiary bronchi
 Bronchioli
 Terminal bronchioli

Bronchioles
Slide
Figure 13.5a
 Smallest
branches of
the bronchi

Bronchioles
Slide
Figure 13.5a
 All but the smallest
branches have
reinforcing cartilage

Bronchioles
Slide
 Terminal bronchioles end in alveoli
Figure 13.5a

Respiratory Zone
Slide
 Structures
Respiratory bronchioli
Alveolar duct
Alveoli
 Site of gas exchange

Alveoli
Slide
 Structure of alveoli
Alveolar duct
Alveolar sac
Alveolus
Gas exchange

Respiratory Membrane
(Air-Blood Barrier)
Slide
 Thin squamous epithelial layer lining
alveolar walls
 Pulmonary capillaries cover external
surfaces of alveoli

Respiratory Membrane
(Air-Blood Barrier)
Slide
Figure 13.6

Gas Exchange
Slide
 Gas crosses the respiratory membrane
by diffusion
Oxygen enters the blood
Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli
 Macrophages add protection
 Surfactant coats gas-exposed alveolar
surfaces

Events of Respiration
Slide
 Pulmonary ventilation – moving air in and
out of the lungs
 External respiration – gas exchange
between pulmonary blood and alveoli

Events of Respiration
Slide
 Respiratory gas transport – transport of
oxygen and carbon dioxide via the
bloodstream
 Internal respiration – gas exchange
between blood and tissue cells in
systemic capillaries

Mechanics of Breathing
(Pulmonary Ventilation)
Slide
 Completely mechanical process
 Depends on volume changes in the
thoracic cavity
 Volume changes lead to pressure
changes, which lead to the flow of
gases to equalize pressure

Mechanics of Breathing
(Pulmonary Ventilation)
Slide
 Two phases
Inspiration – flow of air into lung
Expiration – air leaving lung

Inspiration
Slide
 Diaphragm and intercostal muscles
contract
 The size of the thoracic cavity increases
 External air is pulled into the lungs due to
an increase in intrapulmonary volume

Inspiration
Slide
Figure 13.7a

Exhalation
Slide
 Largely a passive process which depends on
natural lung elasticity
 As muscles relax, air is pushed out of the
lungs
 Forced expiration can occur mostly by
contracting internal intercostal muscles to
depress the rib cage

Nonrespiratory Air Movements
Slide
 Can be caused by reflexes or voluntary
actions
 Examples
Cough and sneeze – clears lungs of debris
Laughing
Crying
Yawn
Hiccup

Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
Slide
 Normal breathing moves about 500 ml of air
with each breath (tidal volume [TV])
 Many factors that affect respiratory capacity
A person’s size
Sex
Age
Physical condition
 Residual volume of air – after exhalation,
about 1200 ml of air remains in the lungs

Slide
 Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
Amount of air that can be taken in forcibly
over the tidal volume
Usually between 2100 and 3200 ml
 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
Amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled
Approximately 1200 ml

Slide
 Residual volume
Air remaining in lung after expiration
About 1200 ml

Slide
 Vital capacity
The total amount of exchangeable air
Vital capacity = TV + IRV + ERV
Dead space volume
 Air that remains in conducting zone and
never reaches alveoli
 About 150 ml

Slide
 Functional volume
Air that actually reaches the respiratory
zone
Usually about 350 ml
 Respiratory capacities are measured
with a spirometer

Respiratory Capacities
Slide
Figure 13.9

Respiratory Sounds
Slide
 Sounds are monitored with a
stethoscope
 Bronchial sounds – produced by air
rushing through trachea and bronchi
 Vesicular breathing sounds – soft
sounds of air filling alveoli

External Respiration
Slide
 Oxygen movement into the blood
The alveoli always has more oxygen than
the blood
Oxygen moves by diffusion towards the
area of lower concentration
Pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen

External Respiration
Slide
 Carbon dioxide movement out of the
blood
Blood returning from tissues has higher
concentrations of carbon dioxide than air in
the alveoli
Pulmonary capillary blood gives up carbon
dioxide
 Blood leaving the lungs is oxygen-rich
and carbon dioxide-poor

Gas Transport in the Blood
Slide
 Oxygen transport in the blood
Inside red blood cells attached to
hemoglobin (oxyhemoglobin [HbO2])
A small amount is carried dissolved in the
plasma

Gas Transport in the Blood
Slide
 Carbon dioxide transport in the blood
Most is transported in the plasma as
bicarbonate ion (HCO3
–)
A small amount is carried inside red blood
cells on hemoglobin, but at different binding
sites than those of oxygen

Internal Respiration
Slide
 Exchange of gases between blood and
body cells
 An opposite reaction to what occurs in
the lungs
Carbon dioxide diffuses out of tissue to
blood
Oxygen diffuses from blood into tissue

Slide
Figure 13.11

External Respiration,
Gas Transport, and
Summary
Slide
Figure 13.10

Neural Regulation of Respiration
Slide
 Activity of respiratory muscles is transmitted
to the brain by the phrenic and intercostal
nerves
 Neural centers that control rate and depth are
located in the medulla
 The pons appears to smooth out respiratory
rate
 Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) is 12–15
respirations per minute
 Hypernia is increased respiratory rate often
due to extra oxygen needs

Neural Regulation of Respiration
Slide
Figure 13.12

Factors Influencing Respiratory
Rate and Depth
Slide
 Physical factors
Increased body temperature
Exercise
Talking
Coughing
 Volition (conscious control)
 Emotional factors

Rate and Depth
Slide
 Chemical factors
Carbon dioxide levels
 Level of carbon dioxide in the blood is the
main regulatory chemical for respiration
 Increased carbon dioxide increases
respiration
 Changes in carbon dioxide act directly on
the medulla oblongata

Rate and Depth
Slide
 Chemical factors (continued)
Oxygen levels
 Changes in oxygen concentration in the
blood are detected by chemoreceptors in
the aorta and carotid artery
 Information is sent to the medulla oblongata

Respiratory Disorders: Chronic
Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
(COPD)
Slide
 Exemplified by chronic bronchitis and
emphysema
 Major causes of death and disability in
the United States

(COPD)
Slide
 Features of these diseases
Patients almost always have a history of
smoking
Labored breathing (dyspnea) becomes
progressively more severe
Coughing and frequent pulmonary
infections are common

(COPD)
Slide
 Features of these diseases (continued)
Most victimes retain carbon dioxide, are
hypoxic and have respiratory acidosis
Those infected will ultimately develop
respiratory failure

Emphysema
Slide
 Alveoli enlarge as adjacent chambers break
through
 Chronic inflammation promotes lung fibrosis
 Airways collapse during expiration
 Patients use a large amount of energy to
exhale
 Overinflation of the lungs leads to a
permanently expanded barrel chest
 Cyanosis appears late in the disease

Chronic Bronchitis
Slide
 Mucosa of the lower respiratory
passages becomes severely inflamed
 Mucus production increases
 Pooled mucus impairs ventilation and
gas exchange
 Risk of lung infection increases
 Pneumonia is common
 Hypoxia and cyanosis occur early

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
(COPD)
Slide
Figure 13.13

Lung Cancer
Slide
 Accounts for 1/3 of all cancer deaths in
the United States
 Increased incidence associated with
smoking
 Three common types
Squamous cell carcinoma
Adenocarcinoma
Small cell carcinoma

Sudden Infant Death syndrome
(SIDS)
Slide
 Apparently healthy infant stops
breathing and dies during sleep
 Some cases are thought to be a
problem of the neural respiratory control
center
 One third of cases appear to be due to
heart rhythm abnormalities

Asthma
Slide
 Chronic inflamed hypersensitive
bronchiole passages
 Response to irritants with dyspnea,
coughing, and wheezing

Developmental Aspects of the
Respiratory System
Slide
 Lungs are filled with fluid in the fetus
 Lungs are not fully inflated with air until
two weeks after birth
 Surfactant that lowers alveolar surface
tension is not present until late in fetal
development and may not be present in
premature babies

Developmental Aspects of the
Respiratory System
Slide
 Important birth defects
Cystic fibrosis – oversecretion of thick
mucus clogs the respiratory system
Cleft palate

Aging Effects
Slide
 Elasticity of lungs decreases
 Vital capacity decreases
 Blood oxygen levels decrease
 Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide
decreases
 More risks of respiratory tract infection

Respiratory Rate Changes
Throughout Life
Slide
 Newborns – 40 to 80 respirations per
minute
 Infants – 30 respirations per minute
 Age 5 – 25 respirations per minute
 Adults – 12 to 18 respirations per
minute
 Rate often increases somewhat with old
age

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