Anatomy and physiology are two of the most basic terms and areas of study in the life sciences. Anatomy refers to the internal and external structures of the body and their physical relationships, whereas physiology refers to the study of the functions of those structures.

1. HUMAN
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
P r o f . Am o l B . D e o r e
D e p a r t m e n t o f P h y s i o l o g y
M V P S I n s t i t u t e o f P h a r m a c e u t i c a l S c i e n c e s , N a s h i k

2. ANATOMY
• Anatomy is the study of structure (physical form) of the body
and how the body parts are organized.
• This study includes size, shape, composition, coloration of body
parts and their physical relationship between each other.

6. Physiology is the study of the functions of body parts.
This study includes what they do, how they do it and how this is related to the
functioning of the rest of the body.

7. Discussion
• RBCs contain the mineral iron (Fe) in molecules
of the haemoglobin; this is an part of their
anatomy.
• The presence of iron enables RBC to carry
oxygen, which is their function.
• All cells in the body must receive oxygen in
order to function properly, so the physiology of
RBC is essential to the physiology of the body as
a whole.

9. Pathology
• Pathology is the study of the abnormalities (diseases) of the
body and how they affect body functions, often causing illness.

10. LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL COMPLEXITY
• Within the body there are different levels of structural
organisation and complexity.
• Chemical level
• Cellular level
• Tissue level
• Organ level
• Organ systems level
• Organismal level

11. LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL COMPLEXITY

12. Chemical level
•The chemicals that make up the
body may be divided into two major
categories:
•ORGANIC & INORGANIC.

14. Organic chemicals are often very complex and always contain
the elements carbon (C) and hydrogen (H).
e.g. carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Inorganic chemicals are usually simple molecules made of one
or two elements other than carbon (with a few exceptions).
e.g. water, oxygen (O), carbon dioxide (CO2); and minerals
such as iron (Fe), sodium (Na), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P),
calcium (Ca), and sulphur (S), are essential for maintaining life.

15. Cellular level
Molecules combine to form cells, the basic structural and functional
units of an organism. The cells are smallest structural and functional
units of living body.
There are many different types of human cells, though they all have
certain similarities.
Each type of cell is made of chemicals and carries out specific
chemical reactions.

18. Tissue level
•Tissues are groups of cells and the materials
surrounding them that work together to perform a
particular function.
•There are just four basic types of tissue in your body:
epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscular tissue,
and nervous tissue.

20. Organ level
Organs are structures that are composed of two or more different types of
tissues; they have specific functions and usually have recognizable shapes.
e.g. the kidneys, bones, the liver, lungs, and stomach. The stomach is lined with
epithelial tissue that secretes gastric juice for digestion. Smooth muscle tissue in
the wall of the stomach contracts to mix food with gastric juice and push it to
the small intestine. Nerve tissue carries impulses that increase or decrease the
contractions of the stomach.

22. Organ systems level
Integumentary system
Skeletal system
Muscular system
Nervous system
Endocrine system
Cardiovascular system
Lymphatic system
Respiratory system
Digestive system
Reproductive system

23. a) Integumentary system
Organs: skin, epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous tissue
Functioning: It is a barrier to pathogens and chemicals. It prevents excessive
water loss. Skin also regulates body temperature.
b) Skeletal system
Organs: bones, ligaments, cartilages
Functioning: Supports the body. It protects internal organs and red bone
marrow. It provides a framework to be moved by striated muscles.

25. a) Muscular system
Organs: skeletal muscles, tendons
Functioning: Moves the skeleton and also produces heat.
b) Nervous system
Organs: brain, spinal cords, cranial nerves and spinal nerves.
Functioning: Interprets sensory information and regulates body functions such
as movement by means of nerve impulses.

27. a) Endocrine system
Organs: thyroid gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, adrenal gland
Functioning: Regulates body functions such as growth and reproduction by
means of hormones. Endocrine system also regulates metabolism of protein,
lipids and carbohydrates by means of hormones.
b) Cardiovascular system
Organs: heart, blood, arteries, arterioles, aorta, capillaries, veins
Functioning: Transports oxygen and nutrients to tissues and removes waste
products.

29. a) Lymphatic system
Organs: spleen, lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, tonsils & thymus gland
Functioning: Returns tissue fluid to the blood. It also destroys pathogens that
enter the body and provides immunity.
b) Respiratory system
Organs: lungs, trachea, pharynx, larynx, bronchi, diaphragm and intercostal
muscles
Functioning: The overall exchange of the gases oxygen and carbon dioxide
between the atmospheric air, the blood and the cells.

31. a) Digestive system
Organs: mouth cavity, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, colon, liver, gall
bladder and pancreas
Functioning: Break down of complex food to simple chemicals that can be
absorbed to blood and used by the body.
b) Urinary system
Organs: kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra
Functioning: Removes waste products from the blood. It regulates volume and
pH of blood and tissue fluid.

33. a) Reproductive system
Organs: Female: ovaries, uterus, uterine tube & vagina
Male: testes, penis, urethra, prostate gland & seminal vesicles
Functioning: In women, provides a site (uterus) for the developing embryo and
fetus. In men, produces eggs or sperm.

34. Organismal level
• All the parts of the human body functioning together
constitute the total organism.

35. Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the maintenance of the internal environment of the body.
Homeostasis is essential to survival; hence, many of the body’s systems are
concerned with maintaining this internal environment.
Homeostasis is the condition of equilibrium (balance) in the body’s internal
environment due to the constant interaction of the body’s many regulatory
processes.

36. A person who is in good health may be said to be in a state of
homeostasis. Homeostasis reflects the ability of the body to
maintain a relatively stable metabolism and to function normally in
spite of many constant changes.
Some examples of homeostasis are blood sugar levels, body
temperature, heart rate, and the fluid environment of cells. When
homeostasis is maintained, the body is healthy.

37. Body Cavities
• The body has two major cavities, the dorsal cavity and the ventral
cavity. The dorsal cavity contains organs of the nervous system that
coordinate the body’s functions.
• It is divided into the cranial cavity, which contains the brain, and the
spinal cavity, which comprises the spinal cord.
• The ventral cavity comprises organs that are involved in maintaining
homeostasis. The ventral cavity is subdivided into the thoracic cavity,
abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity. (Refer figure 1.2)

39. The thoracic cavity is enclosed by the rib cage. The thoracic cavity
contains the heart in a pericardial sac referred to as the pericardial
cavity, and the two lungs each covered by the pleural membrane
referred to as the pleural cavities.
A space called the mediastinum is found between the two pleural
cavities. It contains the heart, thymus gland, lymph and blood
vessels, trachea, esophagus, and nerves. The diaphragm muscle
separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity.

40. The abdominal cavity contains the stomach, liver and gallbladder, small and
large intestines, spleen, and pancreas. The membranes of the abdominal
cavity are also serous membranes called the peritoneum and mesentery.
The pelvic cavity is inferior to the abdominal cavity. Although the peritoneum
does not line the pelvic cavity, it covers the free surfaces of several pelvic
organs. Within the pelvic cavity are the urinary bladder and reproductive
organs such as the uterus in women and the prostate gland in men.

41. Terms of direction
• In order to describe the parts of the body, it is important
to make reference to their positions in regard to the body
as a whole. The following directional terms have been
accepted to facilitate these references. (Refer figure 1.3)

43. Sr.
No.
Terms Positions
1) Superior Uppermost or above
2) Inferior Lowermost or below
3) Anterior Toward the front i.e. Ventral
4) Posterior Toward the back i.e. Dorsal
5) Cranial Toward the head
6) Caudal Inferior
7) Medial Nearest the midline of the body
8) Lateral Toward the side or away from the
Midline of the body
9) Proximal Nearest the point of attachment
Or origin
10) Distal Nearest the point of attachment
Or origin

44. Planes and sections
•When internal anatomy is described, the body or
an organ is often cut or sectioned in a specific
way so as to make particular structures easily
visible. A plane is an imaginary flat surface that
separates two portions of the body or an organ.
These planes and sections are shown in figure.

46. • Frontal or coronal section: a plane from side to side separates the
body into front and back portions.
• Sagittal section: a plane from front to back separates the body into
right and left portions.
• Transverse section: a horizontal plane separates the body into upper
and lower portions.
• Cross section: a plane perpendicular to the long axis of an organ.
• Longitudinal section: a plane along the long axis of an organ.

47. •Thanking You
P r o f . Am o l B . D e o r e
D e p a r t m e n t o f P h y s i o l o g y
M V P S I n s t i t u t e o f P h a r m a c e u t i c a l S c i e n c e s , N a s h i k