2. CASE 1
•B/O A
•1st issue
•Antenatal history -uneventful
•Term, Born by LSCS , meconium stained
liquor, CIAB ,shifted mother side
•12 hrs later developed tachypnea, so
shifted to NICU ,Required ventilation
•Spo2 rt upper limb 96, rt lower limb 89
5. CASE 2
Primi, Full term, 2.9 kg, Male child,
delivered by vaginal route
Cried immediately
Had respiratory distress & grunt
since birth
registered pregnancy
H/O poly-hydroamnios
No any drug history or any other
illness
6. On admission:
HR 168/min,RR 58/min,SPO2 92%
on room air,CRT 4sec
R/S:
shape:asymmetrical,
hyperinflsted
Air entry diminshed on Lt side,
Mediastinum shifted on Rt side
P/A: scaphoid
8. CASE 3
33 wks,2.2 kg, male child deliverd by
LSCS(ivo dimished fetal activity and
fetal bradycardia)
Cried immediately
Had respiratory distress and grunt
9. On examination……
HR 165/min
RR 60/min
CRT 3sec
spo2 85% with NPO2 2 ltr/min
PP well felt
R/S: b/L air entry diminished
Grunting +nt, subcostal
retraction +nt
CVS :normal
CNS: normal
14. CASE 4
Primi,Full term, 2.3 kg, Male
child,delivered by vaginal route in
Govt. hospital
Cried immediately
Had respiratory distress & grunt after
30 minutes of life
16. On Examination…….
HR 175/min
RR 60/min
CRT 3sec
spo2 90% with NPO2 2 ltr/min
PP low volume,+nt on all 4 limbs
Fine white froathy bubbles of mucus
present(+nt) in mouth
17. R/S:
B/L air entry diminshed
B/L crepitation +nt,grunting +nt
subcostal retraction +nt
CVS:
S1 S2 heard,no murmer
P/A:
soft,but no gastric sounds on
auscultation
19. CASE 5
•antenatal history uneventful
•Born by lscs
•Did not cry after birth
•Required suction stimulation, bag and
mask ventilation for 1.30 min, then
improved.
•Shifted to nicu
•o/e : HR- 100/min, RR-80/min, grunting
present, air entry normal
•Inv – ph-7.12, pco2- 20, Pa02-130,
hco3- 10
20. Respiratory distress
• Cause of significant morbidity and
mortality
• Incidence 4 to 6% of live births
• Many are preventable
• Early recognition, timely referral,
appropriate treatment essential
22. Pathophysiology considerations
unique to the newborn
Prolonged and unattended distress
leads to hypoxemia, hypercarbia and
acidosis. This leads to pulmonary
vasoconstriction and persistence of
fetal circulation with right to left
shunting through the ductus and
foramen ovale , thereby aggravating
hypoxemia.
23. Causes of respiratory distress -
Medical
• Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS)
• Meconium aspiration syndrome (MAS)
• Transient tachypnoea of newborn (TTNB)
• Asphyxial lung disease
• Pneumonia- Congenital, aspiration, nosocomial
• Persistent pulmonary hypertension (PPHN)
• Cardiac: Congenital heart disease, Ductus dependant
lesions, PDA of prematurity,
• Metabolic: Acidosis, hypoglycemia, polycythemia, anemia
• Shock due to any cause
25. Approach to respiratory distress
History
• Onset of distress
• Gestation
• Predisposing factors- PROM, fever
• Meconium stained amniotic fluid
• Asphyxia
26. Approach to respiratory distress
Examination
• Severity of respiratory
distress
• Neurological status
• Blood pressure, CFT
• Hepatomegaly
• Cyanosis
• Features of sepsis
• Look for malformations
28. Suspect surgical cause
• Obvious malformation
• Scaphoid abdomen
• Frothing
• History of aspiration
29. Were there any risk factors in the antepartum
period or evidence of foetal distress prior to
delivery? (Birth asphyxia or PPHN)
Did the mother receive antenatal steroids if it
was a preterm delivery? (Antenatal steroids
decrease the incidence of HMD by 50%)
Was there a history of premature rupture of
membranes and fever? (congenital pneumonia
or sepsis)
Was there meconium stained amniotic fluid?
(MAS is a possibility)
30. A look at the antenatal ultrasonography (USG) for
the amount of amniotic fluid would tell us the status
of the foetal lung. (congenital anomalies of lung)
Was resuscitation required at birth? (resuscitation
trauma/PPHN/ acidosis)
Did the distress appear immediately or a few hours
after birth? (HMD appears earlier than pneumonia)
Was it related to feeding or frothing at the mouth?
(tracheo-esophageal fistula or aspiration)
Does the distress decrease with crying? (choanal
atresia).
31. For babies presenting later with distress we
have to ask a few other questions :-
Is the distress associated with feed refusal
and lethargy? (sepsis, pneumonia)
Did the distress appear slowly after starting
feeds? (IEM).
Is there a family history of early neonatal
deaths? (CHD, IEM).
32. Clinical Examination
A preterm baby weighing <1500 gms with retractions and
grunt is likely to have HMD.
A term baby born through meconium stained amniotic fluid
with an increase in the anterior- posterior diameter of the
chest (full chest) is likely to be suffering from MAS.
A depressed baby with poor circulation is likely to have
neonatal sepsis with or without congenital pneumonia.
A near term baby with no risk factors and mild distress may
have TTNB
33. An asphyxiated baby may have PPHN.
A growth retarded baby with a plethoric look may have
polycythaemia.
A baby with respiratory distress should be checked for
an air leak by placing a cold light source over the chest
wall in a darkened room.
A baby presenting with tachypnoea and a cardiac
murmur - congenital heart disease.
Inability to pass an 5F catheter through the nostril --
choanal atresia.
39. Pulse oximetry
• Effective non invasive monitoring of
oxygen therapy
• Ideally must for all sick neonates and
those requiring oxygen therapy
• Maintain SaO2 between 90 – 95 %
40. Shake test
• Take a test tube
• Mix 0.5 ml gastric aspirate +
0.5 ml absolute alcohol
• Shake for 15 seconds
• Allow to stand 15 minutes for
interpretation of result
41. Arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis:
Blood gas is essential because with clinical
assessment and pulse oximetry alone, one
would not be able to assess PaO2, PCO2
and pH.
Normal & abnormal values:
PaO2: Pre-ductal PaO2 50–70 mmHg with an
O2 saturation of 87-93%. A PaO2 up to 80
mmHg is acceptable in term infants
42. PaO2:
Hypoxemia: PaO2<50 mmHg
Low normal oxygenation: PaO2 - 50-
60mmHg
Hyperoxemia: >80 mmHg in preterm
and >90 in term.
Hyperoxia is associated with adverse
effects like ROP and BPD due to
increase in the reactive oxygen
species (ROS).
43. PaCO2:
Normal PaCO2 is 35-45 mmHg
Acceptable upper limit: 45-50mmHg,
There is increasing evidence that the strategy of
permissive hypercapnia reduces the duration of
ventilation and decreases the severity of
bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) .
Hypocarbia: <35 mmHg.
Hypocarbia with PaCO2<30 mmHg increases the
risk of periventricular leucomalacia (PVL) in
preterm neonates
44. Assessment of gas exchange
1)Alveolar-arterial Oxygen
gradient (A-aDO2)
2)a/A ratio
3)Oxygenation Index (OI)
45. A-aDO2 (alveolar arterial oxygen diffusion
gradient):
This is to be calculated as shown below.
A-a DO2 =PAO2 – PaO2
= [(PB-PW) × FiO2 – PaCO2/RQ] – PaO2
= [(760-47) × FiO2 – PaCO2/.8] – PaO2
Normally it ranges between 5-15, if breathing room
air.
A-aDO2 is considered to be abnormal if more than
40.
46. 2) a /A ratio:
Ratio of PaO2 to PAO2.
It is considered to be a better indicator of gas
exchange as the ratio is usually not affected by
changes in FiO2
Interpretation:
a) Greater than 0.8: Normal
b) Less than 0.6: indicates need for O2 therapy
c) Less than 0.15: severe hypoxemia
47. 3)Oxygenation Index (OI):
Recommended in babies
who are mechanically ventilated as this index
includes mean airway pressure (MAP).
OI = (MAP × FiO2 ×100) / PaO2
Interpretation:
a) OI 25 – 40: severe respiratory failure;
mortality risk is 50 – 60%
b) OI > 40: Mortality risk is >80%
48. A comparison of indices of respiratory failure in ventilated
preterm infants
N V Subhedar, A T Tan, E M Sweeney, N J Shaw
There was no evidence of a Significant
difference between the performance of the a/A
ratio, A-aDO2, and OI in predicting adverse
respiratory outcomes.
use of the OI is recommended because of its
ease of calculation.
49. Respiratory distress -
Management
• Monitoring
• Supportive
- IV fluid
- Maintain vital signs
- Oxygen therapy
- Respiratory support
• Specific
50. Oxygen therapy*
Indications
• All babies with distress
• Cyanosis
• Pulse oximetry SaO2 <90%
Method
• Flow rate 2-5 L/ min
• Humidified oxygen by hood or nasal prongs
* Cautious administration in pre-term
51.
52.
53. [*Failure of CPAP (): Even on a CPAP of
7cmH2O and 70% FiO2if the neonate has
excessive work of breathing (or)
PCO2>60mmHg with pH <7.2 (or)
recurrent apnea or hypoxemia (PaO2 <50
mmHg), this should be considered as
failure of CPAP].
58. Antenatal corticosteroid
- Simple therapy that saves neonatal lives
• Preterm labor 24-34 weeks of gestation
irrespective of PROM, hypertension and
diabetes
• Dose:
Inj Betamethasone 12mg IM every 24 hrs X
2 doses; or Inj Dexamethasone 6 mg IM
every 12 hrs X 4 doses
• Multiple doses not beneficial
59. Surfactant therapy - Issues
• Should be used only if facilities for
ventilation available
• Cost
• Prophylactic Vs rescue
60. Surfactant therapy - Issues
Prophylactic therapy
Extremely preterm <28 wks
<1000 gm
Not routine in India
Rescue therapy
Any neonate diagnosed to have RDS
Dose 100mg/kg phospholipid Intra tracheal
64. MAS - Prevention
• Oropharyngeal suction before delivery of
shoulder for all neonates born through
MSAF
• Endotracheal suction for non vigorous*
neonates born through MSAF
*Avoid bag & mask ventilation till trachea
is cleared
65. Transient tachypnoea of newborn
(TTNB)
• Cesarean born, term baby
• Delayed clearance of lung fluid
• Diagnosis by exclusion
• Management: supportive
• Prognosis - good
Assessment of gas exchange
Though the blood gas parameters indicate oxygenation and ventilation at a single point of time, these parameters alone would not be sufficient to evaluate gas exchange. Interpretation of PaO2 without FiO2 is misleading. Hence
the gas exchange should be assessed using various parameters like
It is measure of oxigenation. Normal -2.5+.21*age in year
Determines severity of hypoxia and guide to timing of intervention