1. Variation
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2. Variations in FEIs
Fixedness is a key property of FEIs, yet
around 40% of database FEIs have
lexical variations or strongly
institutionalized transformations , and
around 14% have two or more variations
on their canonical forms.
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3. FEIs with variations, according to
idiomaticity type
Proportion of Proportion of all Proportion of all
FEIs in FEIs with any FEIs with 2 or
database variations more variations
anomalous 45.3% 47% 46%
collocations
formulae 21.3% 18% 19%
metaphors 33.4% 35% 35%
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4. Fixedness vs. variation
Although we started from the assumption
that FEIs have fixed or canonical forms
and that variations are to some extent
derivative or deviant, variation is fairly
consistent across FEIs types.
However, even in extreme cases of
variation there still remains some kind of
fixedness, symmetry, or integrity: it is just
that it is not always lexical fixedness.
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5. Variation
IMPORTANT: Variant forms of an individual
expression should be considered as variations rather
than as separate expressions with coincidentally the
same meaning and with some lexis in common. For
example:
 hit the roof = to become extremely angry
 hit the ceiling
 champ at the bit = to be eager and not willing to wait to
do sth.
 chafe at the bit
represent two expressions, each with an institutionalized
variation, not four different expressions.
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6. Variation
The problem is particularly acute with American/British
pairings such as:
 the shoe is on the other foot (AmE) = the situation is
now opposite of what it was, esp. because someone who
was weak now has power
 the boot is on the other foot (BrE)
 blow off steam (AmE) = to do or say sth. that helps you
to get rid of strong feelings or energy
 let off steam (BrE)
We can consider such pairings as variations of each
other, but also as equivalent lexical items which are as
discrete (separate) as gasoline/petrol or
apartment/flat.
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7. Variation
We will take the line that broadly synonymous
pairs or sets of FEIs with common or parallel
lexis represent single FEIs or FEI clusters.
This view allows newly encountered variant
forms to be renconciled with those forms already
found, providing further evidence of instability,
rathe than enforcing either their categorization
as completely new items or else their dismissal
as deviant.
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8. Variation
Also important: the matter of identifying the ‘canonical’ form of an
FEI. There are two ways of considering a case such as:
have an axe to grind = have private interests to serve
have no axe to grind
with an axe to grind
with no axe to grind
(1) Either this represent sa variable FEI cluster, where there are
several possible related forms
(2) Or, this represents a frozen, unvarying FEI nucleus axe to grind
which collocates with preceding have/with/without and a/no.
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9. Variation
The crucial point - very large numbers of
FEIs do not have fixed forms. For
example, kick the bucket is often cited as
a prime example of an FEI where the lexis
is completely frozen. However, there are
instances of kick the pail and kick the
can meaning ‘die’, both in AmE. The main
point is that frozenness and stability can
never be assumed, and change over time.
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10. Variation
To be truly systematic – categories of
variation need to have some predictive
power, and this is not always the case.
What can be predicted – FEIs, especially
metaphorical ones, are likely to vary.
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11. Types of lexical variation
Verb variation
Noun variation
Adjective and modifier variation
Particle variation
Conjunction variation
Specificity and amplification
Truncation
Variations between British and American English
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12. Verb Variation
Verb variation is the commonest type. While in many
cases the meaning of the whole is barely affected by
variation, other variations reflect important syntacto-
semantic distinction. In the following, the verb varies,
but there is no real change of meaning of the FEI,
although there may be register distinctions. For
example:
1. stick/stand out like a sore thumb
2. throw/toss in the towel
3. look/shoot daggers at someone
4. say/kiss goodbye to sth.
5. twist/wrap someone around one’s little finger
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13. Noun Variation
Variation of nouns is only slightly less common than
variation of verbs. In the simplest cases, the varying
nouns are broadly synonymous:
1. a skeleton in the closet/cupboard
2. hold a gun/pistol to someone’s head
3. a cat on a hot tin roof/a cat on hot bricks
In metaphorical FEIs, the nouns are often the focus of
the metaphor. Variations do not have changed
meanings, but mental images of the metaphor may
differ considerably, for example, the images generated
by burn one’s boats and burn one’s bridges. The
distinctions are therefore greater than those between
many verb variations.
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14. Adjective and Modifier Variation
Variation of adjectives in FEIs is
considerably less common that that of
verbs or nouns, probably because there
are fewer component adjectives than
nouns in FEIs. For example:
1. a bad/rotten apple
2. the best/greatest thing since sliced
bread
3. a different/another kettle of fish
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15. Particle Variation
Variation of a prepositional or adverbial
particle, for example:
1. on/along the right lines
2. go round/around in circles
3. in touch/into touch/out of touch
4. in keeping with sbd./sth./out of keeping
with sbd./sth.
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16. Conjunction Variation
For example:
1. when/if push comes to shove
2. when/while the cat’s away, the mice will
play
3. hit and/or miss
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17. Specificity and Amplification
There are many cases of FEIs where the variation consists broadly of
some inserted or suppressed material.
Amplification is inserting additional material into a FEI.
One version is simply a fuller version of the other, adding emphasis or
precision. The extra data is often adjectival (1, 2), adverbial (3); there
may be an optional PP (4, 5, 6), or expanded nominal group (7, 8):
1. have a (good) laugh
2. in (full) bloom
3. turn (over) in one’s grave
4. go to hell (in a handbasket)
5. twist the knife (in the wound)
6. up the creek (without a paddle)
7. at all hours (of the day and night)
8. put flesh (and bone) on something
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18. Truncation
Truncation is cutting off material from a FEI.
Amplification and truncation are two sides of the same coin, but in
the majority of cases listed below, the fuller versions are attested
as the original forms. Many are traditional proverbs and sayings,
downgraded from their canonical or earliest forms to lower-level
grammatical units: a compound clause to a single clause, or a
clause to a group. For example:
1. a bird in the hand (is worth two in the bush)
2. birds of a feather (flock together)
3. don’t count one’s chickens (before they’re hatched)
4. make hay (while the sun shines)
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19. Truncation
The reduced forms can be seen in terms of
ellipsis, since in many cases an allusion to the
original and fuller form remains. However, they
are institutionalized, and many can be regarded
as lexical items in their own right.
A rolling stone gathers no moss is
complicated in that both the nominal the rolling
stone and the VP gather moss are
institutionalized as individual items.
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20. Truncation
In the following examples:
1. a drowning man will clutch at a straw
2. clutch/grasp at straws (truncated form)
1. it’s the (last) straw that breaks the camel’s
back
2. the last straw/final straw (truncated form)
the truncated forms themselves have
variations.
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21. Truncation
In a few cases, the original fuller form has
almost disappeared from the lexicon. Here, the
reduced forms have become fossilized as the
canonical forms. For example:
1. finders keepers (loser weepers)
2. happy the bride that the sun shines on (and
blessed are the dead that the rain falls on)
3. (speech is silver but) silence is golden
4. butter wouldn’t melt in her mouth (but
cheese wouldn’t choke her)
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22. Truncation
Truncation can also occur on an ad hoc basis. For example:
1. My mother was hysterical and my father called me a lot of unpleasant
names. I stood it for a bit and then I’m afraid I said to him that what was
sauce for the goose and at least I wasn’t married.
What's sauce for the goose (is sauce for the gander) = something that you
say to suggest that if a particular type of behaviour is acceptable for one
person, it should also be acceptable for another person
2. In one audacious move, D & B sent a questionnaire to Geoff Croughton,
secretary of the Bank of England. After all, nothing ventured and all
that.
Nothing ventured, nothing gained = something that you say which means
that it is necessary to take risks in order to achieve something
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23. Variations between British and
American English
There are comparatively few cases where the
verb varies. For example:
1. cut a long story short (BrE), make a long story
short (AmE)
2. flog a dead horse (BrE), beat a dead horse
(AmE)
3. kick one’s heels (mainly BrE), cool one’s
heels (mainly AmE)
4. touch wood (BrE), knock wood, knock on
wood (AmE)
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24. Variations between British and
American English
Far more common is variation of a noun or
noun modifier. These sometimes reflect
standard distinctions between British and
American English. For example:
1. in the driving seat (BrE), in the driver’s seat
(AmE)
2. red as a beetroot (BrE), red as a beet (AmE)
3. wear the trousers (BrE), wear the pants
(AmE)
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25. Variations between British and
American English
While catch someone with their trousers
down is only British, catch someone with
their pants down is found in both varieties:
arguably, a British speaker’s mental image
might involve underwear, not outerwear.
A few cases reflect other cultural distinctions:
1. like turkeys voting for Christmas (mainly BrE),
like turkeys voting for Thanksgiving (AmE)
2. turn on sixpence (BrE), turn on a dime (AmE)
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26. Variations between British and
American English
In the majority of cases, the distinctions may
now seem idiosyncratic, although there may be
historical explanations:
1. have green fingers (BrE), have a green
thumb (AmE)
2. keep one’s hair on (BrE), keep one’s shirt on
(AmE)
3. not see the wood for the trees (BrE), not see
the forest for the trees (AmE)
4. rub shoulders with (BrE), rub elbows with
(AmE)
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27. Variations between British and
American English
About with spatial meaning or reference is
largely a Briticism: Americans prefer around. It
is therefore predictable that (not) beat about
the bush is mainly British, (not) beat around
the bush mainly American, although both
forms are found in both varieties.
Other cases of prepositional variation are more
idiosyncratic:
1. at a pinch (BrE), in a pinch (AmE)
2. lead someone up the garden path (BrE), lead
someone down the garden path (AmE)
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28. Variations between British and
American English
There are a few cases where British and
American English have parallel idioms, with
similar meanings, usages, and even source
domains for the metaphors, but different lexis
altogether:
1. a storm in a teacup (BrE), a tempest in a
teapot (AmE)
2. have one’s hand/fingers in the till (BrE),
have one’s hand in the cookie jar (AmE)
3. in inverted commas (BrE), quote unquote
(BrE and AmE), quote end quote (AmE)
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29. Variations between British and
American English
While many of these distinctions are well
established, the situation in general is complex.
The influence of American culture and media in
Britain means that Americanisms and American
variations become established in BrE, or at least
in certain registers or genres of BrE. For
example, the mainly American FEI beat the
bushes ‘try hard to obtain or achieve sth.’
occurs in British journalism, nevertheless with
respect to American or international topics.
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