A brief history of chemical rocket engines (thrusters) for spacecraft

A brief history of chemical rocket
engines (thrusters) for spacecraft
Akira Kakami, associate professor of University of Miyazaki
web.kakami@gmail.com
©Aerojet

This slide
 Original version of the slide was presented at Summer
school of Electric Propulsion, which was held at Cross Pal
Niigata in Niigata city on October 27, 2017.
 Translated into English for releasing the slides in SlideShare.

Objectives
 Introduction of space propulsion devices for spacecraft
 Liquid propellant thruster is mainly used
 Why will chemical propulsion (CP) be presented in Summer School of
Electric propulsion (EP) ?
 In journal papers or conference papers, CP is described in
Introduction to compare the features of EP.
 There are many text books regarding EP
 Physics of Electric Propulsion (R. G. Jahn)
 Fundamentals of Electric Propulsion, Ion and Hall Thrusters (Dan M.
Goebel, Ira Katz)
 However, CP on spacecraft is usually explained not in a book, but in a
chapter:
 Charles D. Brown, Space propulsion
 G. P. Sutton, History of Liquid Propellant Engines
 Peter J. Turchi, Propulsion Techniques: Action and Reaction
 Wilfried Ley, Handbook of Space Technology

CV of Akira Kakami  2003 Got Ph.D. from Univ. of Tokyo for
liquid propellant pulsed plasma thruster
 2003-2005, Post doctoral fellow in
Kyushu Institute of Technology
 Throttleable solid propellant
thruster using laser-assisted
combustion
 Thrust measurement device using
null balance method
 2005-2006 , Advanced Institute of
Science and Technology
 Piezoelectric sensor
 2006-2012 , Assistant professor in
Kyushu Institute of Technology
 Arcjet thruster, LP-PPT
 Thrust measurement device
 2012-today, Associate professor of Univ.
of Miyazaki
 Electric/Chemical propulsion
 Thrust measurement devices (6DOF,
high frequency thrust variation)
Liquid Propellant Pulsed Plasma Thruster
Throttleable solid propellant thruster
using laser-assisted combustion
https://sites.google.com/view/akira-kakami/

Liquid propellant thrusters
 Mainly used on spacecraft
for attitude control, orbit
maintenance/transfer.
 Bipropellant thruster
 Fuel: Hydrazine
 Oxidizer: Nitrogen
Tetroxide
 Monopropellant thruster
 Propellant: Hydrazine
Solid propellant rocket engine
 Used as apogee kick
motors
 Advantages: Simple
structure
 Difficulty in start and
interruption of
combustion, and
throttling.
 Incapacitates attitude
control and orbit
maintenance
 Lower specific impulse
CP on spacecraft
http://www.esa.int/

6
Monopropellant thruster
Pressurant
Thrust chamber Nozzle
Catalyst bed
Iridium-based particulate catalyst
Mesh
• Propellant: Hydrazine, Monomethyl hydrazine (MMH)
• Simpler structure but lower specific impulse than bipropellant thruster
• Thrust: 1-4000 N
• Mainly used for reaction control system (RCS)
• Variable thrust due to pulse mode operation
Monopropellant

Bipropellant thruster
Pressurant
Pressurizing gas for prop. feeding
FUEL
Thrust
chamber
Nozzle
Atomization by impingement
Fuel ：Hydrazine, MMH, Unsymmetrical Dimethyl Hydrazine (UDMH)
Oxidizer: Nitrous tetroxide or MON3 (Mixed Oxides Nitrogen)
Isp: 300-330 s
Mainly used for orbit transfer
8
OXIDIZER

445-N bipropellant thruster firing
www.aeroejet.com

Propellant supply: Pressure-fed
Blow down
Pressure-regulated
Blow down mode w/ depressurization
Usually, no turbo pump is used
(USSR used turbo pumps?)
Wilfried Ley, Klaus Wittmann, Willi Hallman, Handbook of Space Technology, 2009

Propellant supply: Pressure-fed
Blow down
Pressure-regulated
Usually, no turbo pump is used
(USSR used turbo pumps?)

Injector
Showerhead Swirl

Automated
Transfer Vehicle
(ATV)
http://www.space-propulsion.com/spacecraft-propulsion/bipropellant-thrusters/200n-bipropellant-thrusters.html
http://spaceflight101.com/spacecraft/atv/
200N ATV bipropellant aft thruster cluster (4)
490 N main navigation engines (4)
Model: Aerojet R-4D-11
200N ATV bipropellant fwd thruster cluster (4)
Isp > 270 s
Nb alloy with SiCrFe coating
Airbus 200 N bipropellant thruster

Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) Docking on
12 August, 2014
https://youtu.be/lM7SeFqJ8M4

Hydrazine and
Nitrogen tetroxide
N
N
H
H
H
H
O
N
O
O
O
N
www.3dchem.com
O
N

Short history of hydrazine (N2H4)
Theodor Curtius (1857-1928)
Extracted pure hydrazine (1887)
Friedrich Raschig (1863-1928)
Invented Rashing process in 1906 or 7,
which is related to Olin Raschig Process.

Short history of hydrazine (cont’d)
Year
1930 Used as reductant
1933 von Braun, proposed HNO3/N2H4 bipropellant in Das
Mars Projekt
1943 First flight of Me-163B rocket plane
1950 Forming agent for polymer synthesis
1952 Synthesized isoniazid（Preventive/therapeutic drugs for
tuberculosis)
1953 Chemicals for boiler-water treatment
1964 Gemini 1
1967 Apollo 11
1976 Viking space probes
Eckart W. Schmidt, History of Hydrazine Monopropellants, 2009

Feature of N2H4
 Reductant, water soluble
 Colorless transparent water
 Toxic, and carcinogenic
 Boiler cleaning solution
 Eliminating oxygen in water
 Ingredients of fungicides and pesticides
 Used as wine preservative in some winery *
 Provides wine with terpene-like character.
 Melting point：1 ℃, Enthalpy of formation：50.63 kJ/mol
 Exothermic reaction by adhering catalyst
*R. S. Jackso, Wine Science, Third Edition: Principles and Applications, 3rd edition, 2008
N
N
H
H
H
H
www.3dchem.com

H
H
N
N
N
N
Hydrazine decomposition
4
3
(1 − 𝑥) mol
1
3
(1 + 2𝑥) mol
2𝑥 mol
Exothermic
decomposition
N
N
H
H
H
H
Molecule model: Wikipedia, www.3dchem.com
NH3 decomposition
(endothermic)
N
HH
H
N
HH
H

Hydrazine
consumption
(Japan)
http://www.aesj.or.jp/~wchem/imemo9_2m.pdf
Production/Import：10,000 metric ton per year
Pure hydrazine is used only as propellant, whereas hydrazine hydrate is mainly used.
(In 1999, a few tons of pure hydrazine was produced, despite total consumption of
hydrazine and variants was 15,000 ton)
Foaming
agent
Boiler cleaning
solution
28%
Industrical
material
Pesticides
3%
Medicine
1%
Others
6%

Eliminating rusts on boiler of power plants
Senichi Tsubakizaki et. al., Mitsubishi Heavy Industry Technical report, Vo.46 No.2, 2009
hrs submerge
hrs submerge
hrs submerge
Mixture ratio

Isoniazid
©Wikipedia, NIH
Mycobacterium tuberculosis

O
N
O
O
O
N
www.3dchem.com
O
N
Nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4, NTO)
 Dinitrogen tetroxide
 Nitrogen peroxide
 Liquid oxidizer
 Hypergolicity with hydrazine
 Colorless transparent
oxidizer
 Toxic
 Melting point：-11.2℃
 Boiling point：21.1 ℃
 Specific weight：1.44
Referred as

NTO in high school chemistry: Le Chatelier's principle
-196℃ 0℃ 23℃ 35℃ 50℃
N2O4 NO2 (Dark brown)
©Wikipediawww.3dchem.com

Hypergolicity https://youtu.be/IcjYdEW_HLQ

Fiat lux!
Genesis 1:1
Dawn (1950s)

Спутник-1 (Sputnik 1)
October 4 1957
Diameter: 58 cm, Mass: 83 kg
No propulsion device installed ©Wikipedia

Launched on Oct. 11, 1958
Manufacturer: TRW
Diam.：74 cm
Mass: 34.2 kg
©Wikipedia
Pioneer I (Able-2)
-the first spacecraft to incorporate course-correction rockets
and a retro-rocket to allow insertion to a lunar orbit
NASA, 1958 NASA/USAF SPACE PROBES (ABLE-l) FINAL REPORT Vol. 3, 1959
Eight small solid propellant vernier rockets (IXS-50)
“fourth stage rocket”
Retro-Rocket “fourth stage rocket”
Thiokol TX-8-6
Prop.: L-701 (Ammonium Perchlorate)
Decelerate spacecraft into lunar orbit.

IXS-50
The Marin Company, THE VANGUARD SATELLITE LAUNCHING VEHICLE AN ENGINEERING SUMMARY, 1960
Manufacturer: Atlantic Research Corporation
Thrust: 222N (50lbs), Burn time: 1s
Used as spin/retro motors on Thor and Vanguard rockets
Fuel: resin
Oxidizer: ammonium perchlorate (AP)
Propellant grain
Igniter
Mg/Polyisobutadiene/KNO3

Launched on Oct. 11, 1958
Manufacturer: TRW
Diam.：74 cm
Mass: 34.2 kg
©Wikipedia
Pioneer I (Able-2)
-the first spacecraft to incorporate course-correction rockets
and a retro-rocket to allow insertion to a lunar orbit
NASA, 1958 NASA/USAF SPACE PROBES (ABLE-l) FINAL REPORT Vol. 3, 1959
Retro-Rocket “fourth stage rocket”
Thiokol TX-8-6
Prop.: L-701 (Ammonium Perchlorate)
Decelerate spacecraft into lunar orbit.

TX-8-6 was a variant of Falcon missle?
Falcon missile (AIM-4G, GAR-3A, Hughes & Thiokol)
Thiokol SP-188 (Isp: 204 s)

TX-8-6 was a variant of Falcon missle?
Falcon missile (AIM-4G, GAR-3A, Hughes & Thiokol)
Thiokol SP-188 (Isp: 204 s)One the other apex was a 13.3-kN-thrust solid fueled
TX-8-6 motor derived from the Falcon air-to-air
missile, to brake the probe into lunar orbit
―Pauro Ulivi, Lunar Exploration: Human Pioneers and Robotic Surveyors
Need to wait for declassification of Appendix D (confidential) in
1958 NASA/USAF SPACE PROBES (ABLE-l) FINAL REPORT

1958 NASA/USAF SPACE PROBES (ABLE-1) FINAL REPORT VOL.2, 1959
Original plan:
Moon
investigation
Failed to insert the probe to lunar orbit
Micrometeorite density
Interplanetary magnetic field
Succeeded in measurement of

What word was searched?
０１
0
10
20
30
40
50
DTIC (Defense Technical Information Center)
Springer
ELSEVIER
NASA Technical Report Server (NTRS)
Publication year

Thruster/Thrustor
Oxford American Dictionary
First appearance: 1597
(Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 11th edition)

Thrust
Oxford American Dictionary
First appearance: 13th century
(Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 11th edition)

Inventing new concept Thruster?
The development of small thrusters for spaceflight vehicles is
really a different business than those discussed before in this
chapter. (G. P. Sutton, History of liquid propellant rocket)
Old word is sometimes added with new meaning Eg.) missile
Old word thruster was added with cutting-edge propulsion system?

Thruster & Thrustor
0
10
20
30
40
50
DTIC (Defense Technical Information Center)
Springer
ELSEVIER
NASA Technical Report Server (NTRS)

Thruster & Thrustor
0
10
20
30
40
50 NTRS, thruster
ELSEVIER, thruster
Springer, thruster
DTIC, thruster
NTRS, thrustor
ELSEVIER, thrustor
Springer, thrustor
DTIC, thrustor
or
er
er
oror
or

Thruster is orthographically correct
In forming the agent-noun from the base thrust,
established rules of English orthography require that
the suffix should be spelled –er.
―Robert G. Jahn, Physics of Electric Propulsion, 1968

Thruster before 1959
Underseat Rocket
Motor MK 124
Figure: M.P. Audley, LOGISTICS MANAGEMENT REPORT FOR U.S. NAVY PROPELLANT-ACTUATED DEVICES
(PAD), 2004

Underseat Rocket
Motor MK 124
(PAD), 2004
The canopy jettison system for the B-57B aircraft has been
evaluated by ballistic tests. The system consists of an M5
thruster for release of the canopy latches, an M3 remover for
jettison of the canopy, and initiators with pressure
transmission systems for actuation of these devices.
― J.E. Prozek, EVALUATION OF CANOPY JETTISON SYSTEM PROPOSED
FOR USE IN B-57B AIRPLANE, Frankford Arsenal Report, 1956

Underseat Rocket
Motor MK 124
(PAD), 2004
Lately, integrated escape systems for large aircraft, such as the
B-52, have been developed. These involve initiators,
removers, catapults and work devices called thrusters, which
are merely propellant actuated devices that move a piston,
the thrust of which does some desired work.
― The Bureau of Naval Weapons, CHLORATES AND PERCHLORATES THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS AND USES, May 1960

Underseat Rocket
Motor MK 124
(PAD), 2004
work devices called thrusters, which
are merely propellant actuated devices that move a piston,
the thrust of which does some desired work.
― The Bureau of Naval Weapons, CHLORATES AND PERCHLORATES THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS AND USES, May 1960

Bow thruster
Master suites
http://www.cunard.com
http://www.cunard.com
http://www.pcurtis.com/qv-intro.htm
©Wikipedia
(Not for Queen Victoria）
Queen Victoria

Bow thruster appeared in 1960s.
Naval Engineers Journal (Wiley)U.S. Naval Research Laboratory
1 Oct 1962
A.S.M.E Journal, November 1961

Side thruster
 Azimuth thruster
 Bow thruster
 Stern thruster
 Google scholar
 Shows 1961 report for Bow thruster
 Provides no report regarding Azimuth/Stern thrusters
before 1961.
 Azimuth thruster
 Invented in 1859 ( “Propelling Rudder”)
 Current Z-drive transmission was invented on 1950.
Side thruster

Two rivals (1960s)
https://apod.nasa.gov
Collision of galaxies NGC 2207 and IC 2163
力拔山兮氣蓋世
Shih-chi -the Record of History
Volume 7, a book of Xiang Yu
(A poem in Battle of Gaixia)

H2O2 and N2H4 in 1960s
Hydrogen peroxide Hydrazine
Catalytic
ignition
Possible Impossible
Hypergolic
igniter
Not necessary Necessary
(NTO with pellet)
Variable
thrust
Possible due to pulse
mode operation
Difficult
(Needed flow rate ctrl)
Ignition delay,
ms
30-40 -
Isp, s 148-158 225-245
Burning temp. Low High
(Requires Heat resistant
catalyst)

Glory of hydrogen peroxide thrusters
Syncom II
(Launched on September 29, 1963)
This is the world’s first commercial
communications satellite and
“live via satellite” is born.
(www.Intelsat.com)
Walter Kidde & Company ©Wikipedia©Wikipedia
Early Bird (Intelsat I)
(Launched on April 6, 1965)

©Wikipedia
Syncom II Syncom III
Launch date Sept. 29 1963 Aug. 19 1964
Record First geosynchronous satellite First geostationary satellite
Thruster RCS H2O2 thruster, Nitrogen gas jet H2O2 thruster
SYNCOM ENGINEERING REPORT, VOLUME II, NASA TR R-252, 1967
Syncom series

Starfinder apogee motor
Syncom III
H2O2 thruster
JET direction
JET direction
JET
direction

Syncom III
JET
LATERAL H2O2 (No.1)
AXIAL H2O2
(No.1)

Syncom II thrusters arrangement

Syncom III telecasted Tokyo Olympic games
(1964)

Isp: 274 s, Burning time: 19.7 s, Max. thrust: 1120 lb (5000 N)

Восток-1 (Vostok-1)
Launched on April 12, 1961
Two redundant system †
Eight H2O2 monopropellant thruster †
Flight maneuvers, and reentry alignment †
†G.P. Sutton, History of Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines, p.664
©Wikipedia

Mercury
Manned flight project (1959-1963)
Retro
rocket
Thermal protector
Capsule
Parachute
Antenna
Escape rocket
Orbit insertion
Separating
escape
rocket
Fire retro
rocket
Reentry
Extending
parachute
Landing
on water
©Wikipedia

H2O2 thruster arrangement on Mercury
McDonnell Aircraft Corporation, Project Mercury Familiarization Manual, 1959
YAW
PITCH
PITCH
YAW
ROLL

H2O2 thruster arrangement on Mercury
J.B. Hammack and J.C. Heberling, THE MERCURY-REDSTONE PROGRAM, 1961

Mercury
H2O2 thruster
systems

24 lb H2O2 thruster
Catalyst bed
Catalyst caps
Porous stainless
steel flow
distribution plate
Solenoid inlet valve
Drexite coated nickel screens
an electrolytically deposited coating of 90% silver and 1% gold
90% H2O2

Variant of Thiokol TE-236
(Orbital ATK Star 12)
Isp: 252 s
Thrust: 5560 N
Total impulse: 10,350 lbf-sec
(45,980 N-s)
Retro rocket
on Mercury
Posigrade rockets
Solid propellant

Dawn of hydrazine monopropellant thruster
• Pioneer P-3 (Atras-Able-4)
• Launched on November 26 1959, but failed （Launches of P-30 and P-31 were
failed in 1960)
• Manufacturer: TRW (Northrop Grumman)
• Propellant: Hydrazine
• Ignition: Slug start (Used small amount of NTO)
©Wikipedia

Mariner
series
NASA, NSSDCA
Mariner 2
(Mariner R-2)
Mariner 4
Launch on Nov. 28, 1964
Mission: mars exploration
Launch on Aug. 3, 1962
Mission: Venus exploration

Mariner 2
(Mariner R-2)
Launch on Aug. 3, 1962
Mission: Venus exploration
Attitude control: Nitrogen gas jet system
4-jet vane vector control 225-N motor (burn time: 0.2-57 s)
(Slug start w/ NTO and Al2O3 pellets)
NASA, MARINER-VENUS 1962, SP-59, 1965
NASA, NSSDCA

Mariner 4
Launch on Nov. 28, 1964
Mission: mars exploration
4-jet vane vector control 222-N motor (Slug start)
12 cold gas jet
NASA, NSSDCA
NASA, NSSDCA

Mariner Retro
Rocket
T. W. Price and D.D. Evans, The Status of Monopropellant Hydrazine Technology, 1968
R. V. Buren, MARINER MARS 1964 HANDBOOK, 1965
Burn time:
103 s at launch
81 s after midcourse maneuver
Max. thrust vector deflection
±5 deg
Nozzle area ratio: 44

Thruster
arrangement for
Mariner 4
Mariner Mars 1971 Attitude Control Subsystem, 1974
Mariner Mars 1964 Handbook, 1965
Nitrogen cold gas jet
(RCS, PITCH)
Nitrogen cold gas jet
(RCS, ROLL and YAW)
225-N H2N4 engine
w/ four jet vanes for
thrust vector ctrl
X
Y
X
Y
Cold gas jet arrangement
(TOP VIEW)
VIEW DIRECTION
(z-axis)
+Z

T. W. Price and D.D. Evans, The Status of Monopropellant Hydrazine Technology, 1968
H-7 catalyst
Nitrogen
(pressurant)
N2H4
Ignition device
（N2O4）

Shell 405 (Aerojet 405)
• Iridium-based catalyst for hydrazine decomposition
• Developed by Caltech JPL and Shell Chemicals Company on 1957–1960
• Available from 1963 (1964?)
• Enabled pulse mode operation and eliminated slug start system
Wilfried Ley, Handbook of Space Technology

Twilight of hydrogen peroxide
 Lower specific impulse
 H2O2: 148-158 s
 N2H4: 225-245 s
 Self-decomposition in tanks for long term storage
 Emergence of Shell 405
 Catalyst ignition
 Low ignition delay
 Pulse mode firing
 Applications Technology Satellite (ATS) 3
 First success of Hydrazine/Shell 405
 Epoch of monopropellant system
Realized in hydrazine thruster

Applications Technology Satellite 3
 Technology test satellite
 Geosynchronous Earth Satellite
 Spin stabilized
 Communication （VHF, C-band）
 Camera
 Ammonia resistojet
 Hydrazine monopropellant (4
lbs)
 Launched on Nov. 5 1967
 In ATS-3, H2O2 thruster was
replaced with hydrazine thruster
 H2O2 thruster failed on ATS-1
 NASA SP-4217

Applications Technology Satellite 3
 Technology test satellite
 Geosynchronous Earth Satellite
 Spin stabilized
 Communication （VHF, C-band）
 Camera
 Ammonia resistojet
 Hydrazine monopropellant (4
lbs)
 Launched on Nov. 5 1967
 In ATS-3, H2O2 thruster was
replaced with hydrazine thruster
 H2O2 thruster failed on ATS-1
 NASA SP-4217
Flight success of hydrazine/Shell 405 thrusters in the late
1960s prompted the phasing out of hydrogen peroxide in favor
of hydrazine for practically all satellite applications. The
transition began with the NASA/Hughes ATS-3 satellite.
―Peter J. Turchi, Propulsion Techniques: Action and Reaction

Ammonia resistojet on ATS-III
Thruster #1 Thruster #2
Hot Cold Hot Cold
Thrust, mN 169 146 1850 1060
Isp, s 132 105 158 86
Power, W 2.5 0 3.6 0
T. K. PUGMIRE AND W. S. DAVIS, ATS-III Resistojet Thruster System Performance, J. Spacecraft, 1966.

Hydrazine dominance～Shell 405～
 Hydrazine already used since 1950s.
 H2O2 frequently used in RCS despite of lower Isp than
hydrazine
 H2O2: 148-158 s
 N2H4: 225-245 s
 Hydrazine requires heat-resistant catalyst due to higher
combustion temperature
 Slag start
 Ignition requires hypergolic propellant (NTO).
 Incapacitated pulse mode operation
 Shell 405 changed the game.

Japan
Minoru Hirata, Journal of JSASS, Vol. 33, No.379, 1985
Determined to develop hydrazine thruster.
US demonstrated effectiveness of hydrazine thruster.
(ATS-3?)
H2O2
N2H4

Instrumentation/Propulsion
The propellants are nitrogen tetroxide and unsymmetrical-dimethyl
hydrazine.
The main propulsion system and the smaller reaction control system, used for
https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/soyuz/spacecraft_detail.html

Descent Module on Soyuz TMA
“The eight hydrogen peroxide thrusters located on the module are used to control
the spacecraft's orientation, or attitude, during the descent until parachute
deployment.”
https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/soyuz/spacecraft_detail.html
Only a few spacecraft used hydrogen
peroxide after the emergence of Shell 405.

Hydrazine dominance: Great partners
Catalyst OXIDIZER
Hydrazine
Exothermic decomposition by catalyst
No self-decomposition in tanks
Low ignition delay(tens of milliseconds)
Pulse mode Variable thrust
Relatively high Isp(245 s)
Hydrazine decomposed gas is shared
with arcjet thruster
Hypergolicity Requires no spark plug
Low ignition delay (millisecond order)
High Isp (330 s)

Glory
(1970-Today?)
この世をばわが世とぞ思ふ望月の欠けたることもなしと思へば
(When I reflect, this world is indeed my world, nor is there any flaw in the full moon.)
Michinaga Fujiwara
©Wikipedia
Most influential noble in 11th century

Viking
Viking 1 launched on Aug. 20, 1975
Landed on Mars on July 20, 1976.
https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/sunset-at-the-viking-lander-1-site

Viking lander
https://youtu.be/pwipxdQ74pU?t=43s

Viking orbiter and lander
https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/
2-axis gimballed main engine
Thrust vector control
(pitch and yaw)
Cold gas thrusters
Roll control

Descent
capsule
LANDER
AEROSHELL
Viking Lander System
Primary Mission
Performance Report, 1977

Viking Lander Aeroshell
Four RCS modules
three 36-N thruster
Prop.: Hydrazine

Aeroshell
thrusters
Yaw & Pitch engine
Used for attitude control
Produce deorbit impulse
Thrust: 36N, Prop.: hydrazine
Roll engine
Roll control
Thrust: 36N, Prop.: hydrazine
x
y
z
Four RCS modules
RCS module

Lander with
Terminal
Descent System
(TDS)
ROLL ENGINES (4)
TERLMINAL DESCENT ENGINE (3)
Descending
Pitch & Yaw ctrl
Thrust: 44.5 N
Neil A. et. Al., Viking '75 Spacecraft Design and Test Summary Volume I - Lander Design, 1980

Neil A. et. Al., Viking '75 Spacecraft Design and Test Summary Volume I - Lander Design, 1980
Catalyst
container
Motor driven
throttle valve
Propellant
inlet
Exhaust
nozzles
(18)
Terminal Descent
Engine (MR-80)
Thrust: 62-638 lbf, ISP:205s
Expansion ratio: 20, Prop.: Hydrazine

Why did Terminal Descent Engine use
monopropellant?
 Believed that exhaust gas of monopropellant thruster was
less toxic that that of bipropellant.
 This was totally false, and will be shown later.
 Limitation in throttling of bipropellant thruster
 Required throttle ratio: 1:8
 Bipropellant engine of Surveyor：1:3.5 (30-104 lbf)
Eckart W. Schmidt, Viking Mars Lander History - Hydrazine Monopropellant History, 2015
• TDE was the largest monopropellant thruster.
• Since Shell 405 was relatively expensive, low price catalyst
LCH-101 (Low Cost Hydrazine) was developed to supply
large amount of catalyst for TDE.

18 nozzles
Viking 75 project： Viking lander system primary mission performance report, 1971
Original design
Final design
To reduce surface
pressure, minimizing
landing site alteration
by dispersing plume

FIRST CLASS
PASSENGER
Eckart W. Schmidt, Viking Mars Lander
History - Hydrazine Monopropellant
History, 2015
Assembly at Rocket
Research Company

Voyager mission
• Voyager 1
• Launched on Sep. 5,
1977
• Jupiter, Saturn
• Voyager 2
• Launched on Aug.
20, 1977
• Jupiter, Saturn
• Uranus, Neptune
https://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/imagesvideo/imagesofvoyager.html

Voyager, the most distant artifact
21.0 billion km (140.6 AU), Velocity：17 km/s
17.3 billion km (115.8 AU)
Velocity: 15 km/s
Orbit of Pluto: 39.4 AU
Data：October 23, 2017
Launched in 1977 https://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/

Voyager
spacecraft
MR-103
16 thrusters
0.89 N thrust
Attitude control
Trajectory correction
NASA, Voyager Backgrounder, 1980

Rocket Research Company, VOYAGER URANUS ENCOUNTER 0.2-lbf T/VA SHORT PULSE TEST REPORT, 1986
MR-103, a thruster designed for Voyager
10-ms pulse firing yielded
an Isp of 110 s.
C.D Brown, Spacecraft Propulsion, 1995

MR-103C
(Successor)
Propellant/Catalyst: Hydrazine/S405
Isp: 209-224 s
Total impulse: 186,000 Ns
Total pulses: 275,028
Minimum impulse bit: 0.27 Ns @ 15 ms-on

HYDRAZINE
THRUSTER
STAR 37E
Jettisoned
engines
Voyager-Bulletin-Mission-Status-Report

0.89 N (ATT CTRL & TRAJ CORR, Prop.: Viking grade N2H4)
441 N (Pitch and Yaw)
Solid motor
22 N (Roll)
441 N (Pitch and Yaw)
Charles D. Brown, Elements of Spacecraft Design
Thrust: 6.8 MN
Heaters (1.4-W) maintain
min. temp of 116 ºC

Rockets and thrusters on Voyager
On-board
 MR-103 (16 thrusters)
 Thrust: 0.89 N
 Isp: 227? s
 10-ms pulse
 Attitude/Trajectory
control
 Trajectory correction (4
thrusters)
 Attitude control (2
redundant systems w/ 6
thrusters)
Jettisoned
 5-lbf (4 thrusters)
 Model: RRC MR-50 ?
 Thrust: 22 N, Isp: 228? s
 Thrust vector control (Roll)
 MR-104 (4 thrusters)
 Thrust: 441 N, Isp: 239? s
 TVC (pitch & yaw)
 Star 37E Solid propellant
motor
 Accelerating spacecraft to final
Jupiter trajectory velocity
 Thrust: 6,805,440 N
 Weight: 1,123 kg
 Prop.: 1039 kg
 Burn time: 43 s
Charles D. Brown, Elements of Spacecraft Design

MR-104A/C
Propellant: Hydrazine
Catalyst: S405/LCH-202
Thrust: 204.6-572.5N
Isp: 239-223 s
Total impulse: 693,900 Ns
Total pulses: 1,728
Min. impulse bit: 8.23 Ns @ 22 ms-on

Terminal Descent Engine for
Viking
 Thought that exhaust gas of monopropellant thruster was
not toxic.
 Monopropellant thruster was selected despite low Isp.
 Actually, aniline contamination produced hydrogen cyanide
(HCN, TERIBLLY TOXIC COMPOUND)
 Developed Viking grade hydrazine
 Aniline was reduced from 0.5% to 0.003%.
H
H
N
HH
H
＋

MR-103 on Voyager still used
Viking grade monopropellant
 Interstellar travel w/o
landing on any celestial
 HCN production seemed not
to be a problem
 Hence, monopropellant
grade (aniline 0.5%) was
tested in MR-103.
 But, yielded pulse shape
distortion
MR-103

Pulse shape distortion
L. Holcomb, et. Al., Effects of Aniline Impurities on Monopropellant Hydrazine Thruster Performance, 1977
0.9 N thruster
Catalyst bed temp.: 394
Duty ratio: 0.04/100
Propellant: Monopropellant grade
Low duty ratio, and low catalyst
temp. yielded pulse shape distortion

Pulse shape distortion
PURIFIED: aniline < 0.002%
Military grade: 0.54% aniline
PURIFIED/Aniline: 0.74% aniline
Catalyst temp.：394 K
Catalyst temp.： 394 K
Catalyst temp.： 477 K
Duty ratio: 0.04/36

Ignition delay
Aniline 0.012%
Aniline 0.41%
Aniline 1.09%
LOWERISBETTER

Aniline poisoning caused pulse shape
distortion
 Accidental tests using high purity propellant yielded no pulse
shape distortion, and show aniline caused distortion.
 NASA was determined to change Voyagers’ propellant from
monopropellant grade to high purity (Viking) grade.
 Reduce power consumption of heater
 Extend life time.
Production of Viking-Grade hydrazine would most
likely have been discontinued if it had not been for
this accidental discovery.
―E. W. Schmidt, History of Hydrazine Monopropellants

Ultra PureTM
 http://www.hydrazine.com/propellants/ultrapure.aspx
http://www.hydrazine.com/propellants/ultrapure.aspx
“Viking grade”
Start development on 1986
※On 1998, Olin Corporation spined off hydrazine production dept. to Arch Chemical.

Cassini
spacecraft
Two R-4D bipropellant engines
Orbital maneuvers
Trajectory corrections
Four RCS modules
Have four MR-103H thrusters
Produce thrust (y and z axes)
Allow 3-axis control
xy
z
Y1
Z1
Y2
Z2
Z4
Y4

Thruster arrangements
 RCS module (4 modules)
 Has two redundant thruster
blanches
 Contains Y and Z direction thrusters
 3-axis attitude control
 R-4Ds are arranged along Y axis.
Thrust vector (MR-103H)
Thrust vector (R-4D)
Magnetometer
arm
x
y
z
z
x
y
Z1
Y1
Y2
Z2 Z3
Y3
Y4
Z4
RCS module
S. Sarani, A Flight-Calibrated Methodology for Determination of Cassini Thruster On-Times for Reaction Wheel Biases, 2010

白虹日を貫く
NOAA, 1979
Zhan Guo Ce
～Movements for eliminating hydrazine and advances of EP～
Halo penetrates the sun

Hazards of hydrazine (NFPA 704)
Health
Very short exposure could
cause death or major
residual injury
Flammability
Will rapidly or completely
vaporize at normal
atmospheric pressure and
temperature, or is readily
dispersed in air and will burn
readily
Instability/reactivity
Readily capable of
detonation or explosive
decomposition at normal
temperatures and pressuresMaximum: 4 (larger figures shows more dangerous）
©Wikipedia

International Chemical Safety Cards (ICSC)
https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ipcsneng/neng0281.html
TYPES OF HAZARD/
EXPOSURE
SYMPTOMS
FIRE Flammable.
EXPLOSION
Above 38°C explosive vapour/air mixtures may be formed.
Risk of fire and explosion on contact with many materials.
EXPOSURE SYMPTOMS
Inhalation
Cough. Burning sensation. Headache. Confusion.
Drowsiness. Nausea. Shortness of breath. Convulsions.
Unconsciousness.
Skin MAY BE ABSORBED! Redness. Pain. Skin burns.
Eyes Redness. Pain. Blurred vision. Severe burns.
Ingestion
Burns in mouth and throat. Abdominal pain. Diarrhoea.
Vomiting. Shock or collapse. Further see Inhalation.

Green propellant
 Proposed in 1990s.
 Hydrogen peroxide
 Hydroxyl Ammonium Nitrate(HAN)
 AF-M315E
 SP-163
 Glycine added propellant
 Ammonium Dinitrate (ADN)
 LMP-103S
O
N
H
H
H
H O
O
O N
HAN
Hydrogen peroxide
O O
H H
O
O
O
O
N
N N
N
H
H H
H
N(NO2)2
-
NH4
+
©JSMol
ADN

H2O2 monopropellant thruster
 60% hydrogen peroxide
 Theoretical Isp: 122 s
 Catalyst temp.: 419 K
Mayu Banno，Development of Mono-propellant Propulsion System for Active Debris Removal Technology Demonstration Satellite "ADRAS-1", 2016
Propulsion module for Hodoyoshi 3Jun Matushima, et. al., AIAA 2016-4906
Monopropellant thruster for ADRAS-1
©Space System Lab, Tokyo Metropolitan University

SHP-163
 ISAS/JAXA
 HAN-based propellant
 Specific weight: 1.4
 Freezing point 243 K
 Low toxicity
 Isp: 276 s
O
N
H
H
H
H O
O
O N
HAN
H
H H
H
O
C
Methanol
HH
O
Water
N
H H
H
H
N
Ammonium nitrate
O
O O
N

Hydroxyl Ammonium Nitrate (HAN)
 Studied to develop a solid
propellant oxidizer
 Water soluble
 Ion liquid
 Ingredients of liquid gun
propellant (LP-1845)
 Burning rate was suddenly
increased at 8 atm.
Ion liquid
O
O
O
O
N
N
H
H
H
H

SHP-163 thrusters
© ISAS/JAXA © TMU
© OIT© Kyutech
Arcjet thruster w/ SHP-163 decomposed
gas
Plasma assisted monopropellant thruster
Arc assisted monopropellant thruster
Catalyst-based monopropellant thruster

AF-M315E
 HAN based monopropellant
 Isp: 257 s
 12% higher than Hydrazine
 Specific weight: 1.47
 Hydrazine: 1.00
 Low toxicity, Can not freeze
Aerojet, MPS-130 Innovative Propulsion Solutions for Smallsats
Ronald A. Spores, et. al., AIAA 2015-3753
Busek, BXT-X5 Green Monopropellant Thruster
MODEL: GR-1
Thrust: 1N
MODEL: MPS-130
Thrust: 1N, Isp: 240 s Manufacturer: Busec
Model: BST-X5
Thrust: 0.5 N

LMP-103S
 Monopropellant
 Higher performance
 Specific weight: 1.24, Isp: 230 s
 Freezing point : -90ºC
 Increased safety, Low toxicity, Non-carbogenic
ECAPS, HIGH PERFORMANCE GREEN PROPULSION (HPGP) ON-ORBIT
VALIDATION & ONGOING DEVELOPMENT, 2013
(3-6%)ADN
(60-65%)
(15-20%)
+ + ++
Water
(solvent)

ADN (Ammonium Dinitramide)
 Discovered by USSR on 1970s.
 Classified until 1989, when
US independently
developed.
 Studied to develop a solid
propellant oxidizer
 High performance with no
smoke
 No HCl emission
 Water soluble
 LMP-103S – an AND based
propellant
SRI webpage (May 26 2012)
O
O
O
O
N
N N
N
H
H H
H
N(NO2)2
-
NH4
+
©JSMol

ECAPS, HIGH PERFORMANCE GREEN PROPULSION (HPGP) ON-ORBIT VALIDATION & ONGOING DEVELOPMENT, 2013

Summary of green propellants
 Enhance performance
 Isp and specific impulse density
 Lower melting point
 Environmentally friendly
 Blending ingredients like a cocktail
 Birth of ROCKET FUEL
 People has illusions that ROCKET FUEL is specially-
synthesized materials, whereas N2H4 and NTO are
common industrial chemicals.
 In contrast, green propellants are being studied for use in
space propulsion.

Post hydrazine
Catalyst OXIDIZER
• Some flight model developed, but
physical process is being studied.
• Tolerance to carbon and oxide atoms
in monopropellant.
• Endurance to high combustion temp.
Green bipropellant is
under development
SHP-163, AF-M315E,
LMP-103S, etc.
competing
FUEL
(monopropellant)

www.e-news.press
Boeing
702SP
 XIPS-25 system
 4 ion thrusters
 Thrust: 165 mN
 Isp: 3500 s
 Power: 4.5 kW
 Have no chemical
propulsion
 First launch: March 2,
2015.

Summary of current condition
 Post hydrazine
 Enhance compatibility to environment
 Green propellant is being developed
 Great advances in EP
 Higher specific impulse
 All electric propulsion

Future CP for spacecraft
 Whether can post hydrazine propellant (green propellant) be
applicable to
 Monopropellant/Bipropellant thrusters
 Electric propulsion
 Whether can CP survive in the age of all electric satellite?
 Simplicity (Structure and principles)
 Preferable to Microsatellite propulsion
 Quick responsibility and wide-range thrust
 Millisecond response
 Tiny impulse (1mNs) – Ton-class thrust
 Thrust production in vacuum and atmosphere
CP’s FEATURES

Summary
 Structure and design of liquid propellant thrusters
 Hydrazine
 Consumption, history
 Short stories of monopropellant thruster
 Dawn of powered flight (1950)
 Two rivals (1960s)
 Hydrogen peroxide vs Hydrazine
 Aniline purge, Shell 405
 Glory(1970-)
 Viking, Voyager missions
 Aniline purge
 Twilight (1990s - )
 Post hydrazine(Green propellant) movements
 Electric propulsion (All electric)

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