Glossary of-metalworking-terms

Glossary of Metalworking Terms
Abrasion - The processof rubbing,grinding,orwearingawaybyfriction.
Abrasion-ResistantSteels- A familyof steel productsdevelopedforthose applicationsinvolvedin
slidingand/orimpactabrasion.
Abrasive - A substance capable of grindingawayanothermaterial.
Accordion ReedSteel - Hardened,tempered,polishedandbluedoryellow flatsteel withdressed
edges.Carboncontentabout1.00. Material hasto possessgoodflatness,uniformhardnessandhigh
elasticity.
Acid Steel - Steel meltedinafurnace withanacid bottomand liningandundera slagcontainingan
excessof an acidsubstance suchas silica.Steel producedinafurnace withanacid lining,i.e.
consistingof a siliceousrefractoryandunderasiliceousslag.Withanacidslag,carbon, siliconand
manganese onlyare removedsothatthe pigiron mustnot containsulfurandphosphorusin
percentagesexceedingthose permissible forthe specificationbeingmade.Moststeel manufactured
todayis infurnaceswithbasiclinings.
Acid-Brittleness- Brittlenessresultingfrompicklingsteelinacid;hydrogen,formedbythe
interactionbetweenironandacid,ispartiallyabsorbedbythe metal,causingacidbrittleness.
Acid Dipped- Dry RolledFinish.Produced bydrycoldrollingbichromate dippedalloywithpolished
rollsresultinginaburnishedappearance andretainingthe colorobtainedbydipping(True Metal
Color).
Acid-Process- A processof makingsteel,eitherBessemer,open-hearthorelectric,inwhichthe
furnace islinedwithasiliceousrefractoryandforwhichlow phosphoruspigironisrequiredasthis
elementisnotremoved.
Activation - The changingof the passive surface of ametal to a chemicallyactive state.Contrastwith
passivation.
Age Hardening- Hardeningbyaging,usuallyafterrapidcoolingorcoldworking.The termas applied
to soft,or lowcarbon steels,relatestoawide varietyof commerciallyimportant,slow,gradual
changesthat take place inpropertiesof steelsafterthe final treatment.These changes,whichbring
abouta conditionof increasedhardness,elasticlimit,andtensile strengthwithaconsequentlossin
ductility,occurduringthe periodinwhichthe steel isatnormal temperatures.

Aging - A change in propertiesthatoccursat ambientor moderatelyelevatedtemperaturesafter
hot workingora heat-treatingoperation(quenchaginginferrousalloys),oraftera coldworking
operation(strainaging).The change inpropertiesisoften,butnotalways,due toa phase change
(precipitation),butdoesnotinvolve achange inchemical composition.Inametal or alloy,achange
inpropertiesthatgenerallyoccursslowlyatroomtemperature andmore rapidlyathigher
temperatures.
Air Cooling- Coolingof the heatedmetal,intermediateinrapiditybetweenslowfurnace coolingand
quenching,inwhichthe metal ispermittedtostandinthe openair.
Air-HardeningSteel - A steel containingsufficientcarbonandotheralloyingelementstohardenfully
duringcoolinginairor othergaseousmediumsfromatemperature above itstransformationrange.
Such steelsattaintheirmartensiticstructure withoutgoingthroughthe quenchingprocess.
Additionsof chromium,nickel,molybdenumandmanganese are effective towardthisend.The term
shouldbe restrictedtosteelsthatare capable of beinghardenedbycoolinginairinfairlylarge
sections,about2 in.or more in diameter.
AISI Steels- Steelsof the AmericanIronandSteel Institute.Commonandalloysteelshave been
numbered inasystemessentiallythe same asthe SAE.The AISIsystemismore elaborate thanthe
SAE inthat all numbersare precededbyletters:A representsbasicopen-hearthalloysteel,Bacid
Bessemercarbonsteel,Cbasicopen-hearthcarbonsteel,CBeitheracidBessemerare basicopen-
hearthcarbon steel,Eelectricfurnace alloysteel.
Alclad - Composite sheetproducedbybondingeithercorrosion-resistantaluminumalloyor
aluminumof highpuritytobase metal of structurallystrongeraluminumalloy.The coatingsare
anodicto the core so theyprotectexposedareasof the core electrolyticallyduringexposureto
corrosive environment.
Alkaline Cleaner- Uses an alkaline solution,usuallysodiumhydroxide,tocleanresidual oilsandiron
finesleftonthe stripfromthe coldreductionprocess.
Allotriomorph- A particle of a phase thathas no regularexternal shape.
Allotropy- The propertywherebycertainelementsmayexistinmore thanone crystal structure.The
propertypossessedbycertainelementstoexistintwoormore distinctformsthatare chemically
identical buthave differentphysical properties.Inthe case of ironthe crystal structure hasone form
at room temperature andanotherathightemperature.Whenheatedabove910oC the atomic
structure changesfrombodycenteredcubicto face centeredcubicbutrevertsagainwhencooled.
The allotropyof ironmodifiesthe solubilityof carbon,andit isbecause of thisthat steel canbe
hardened.
Alloy- A substance havingmetallicpropertiesandcomposedof twoormore chemical elementsof
whichat leastone isa metal.
AlloySteel - Steel containingsubstantialquantitiesof elementsotherthancarbonand the
commonlyacceptedlimitedamountsof manganese,sulfur,silicon,andphosphorus.Additionof such
alloyingelementsisusuallyforthe purpose of increasedhardness,strengthorchemical resistance.
The metalsmostcommonlyusedforformingalloysteelsare:nickel,chromium, silicon,manganese
tungsten,molybdenumandvanadium,Low Alloysteelsare usuallyconsideredtobe those
containingatotal of lessthan5% of such addedconstituents.

AlloyingElement- An elementaddedtoa metal,andremaininginthe metal,thateffectschangesin
structure and properties.
Alpha Brass - A copper-zincalloycontainingupto38% of zinc.Used mainlyforcoldworking.
Alpha Bronze - A copper-tinalloyconsistingof the alphasolidsolutionof tinincopper.Commercial
formscontain4 or 5% of tin.Thisalloyisusedincoinage,springs,turbine,blades,etc.
Alpha Iron - The polymorphicformof iron,stable below 1670 (degrees)F.hasa bodycenteredcubic
lattice,andismagneticupto 1410 (degrees) F.
Aluminizing- Forminganaluminumoraluminumalloycoatingona metal byhot dipping,hot
spraying,ordiffusion.
Aluminum– Al
AtomicNumber:13
AtomicWeight:26.981538
MeltingPoint:933.437 K (660.323°C or 1220.581°F)
BoilingPoint:2792 K (2519°C or 4566°F)
Density:2.70 grams per cubiccentimeter
Phase at RoomTemperature:Solid
A silverywhitemetal of valence3.Ductile andmalleable;stable againstnormal atmospheric
corrosion,butattackedby bothacids andalkalis.Aluminumisusedextensivelyinarticlesrequiring
lightness,corrosionresistance,electrical conductivity,etc.Itsprincipal functionsasan alloyinsteel
making;(1) Deoxidizesefficiently.(2) Restrictsgraingrowth(byformingdispersedoxidesornitrides)
(3) Alloyingelementinnitridingsteel.Aluminumisalsousedtodeoxidizesteelandcontrol grain
size.Grainsize control isaffectedbyformingafine dispersionwithnitrogenandoxygen,which
restrictsaustenite graingrowth.Aluminumisalsoanextremelyeffective nitride formerinnitriding
steels.
AluminumKilledSteel – A steel where aluminumhasbeenusedasa deoxidizingagent.
Amorphous - Noncrystalline.
Analog - Full-bodyelectromagneticinductiontesting;atype of non-destructivetest.
<pAngstrom Unit - (A) A unit oflinear measure equal to 10(-10)m, or 0.1 nm; not an accepted Si
unit, but still sometimesusedforsmall distancessuch as interatomicdistancesand some
wavelengths.
Anisotropy- The characteristics of exhibitingdifferentvaluesofa propertyin differentdirections
with respectto a fixedreference systeminthe material.
Annealing- (1) Heating to and holdingat a suitable temperature and then coolingat a suitable
rate, for such purposesas reducinghardness,improvingmachinability,facilitatingcold working,
producing a desiredmicrostructure,or obtainingdesiredmechanical,physical,or other properties.
Whenapplicable,the followingmore specifictermsshould be used: black annealing,blue
annealing,box annealing,brightannealing,flame annealing,graphitizing,intermediate annealing,
isothermal annealing,malleableizing,processannealing,quenchannealing,recrystallization

annealing,and spheroids.When appliedto ferrousalloys,the term annealing,without
qualification,impliesfull annealing.Whenappliedtononferrousalloys,the term annealing
impliesa heat treatmentdesignedto softenan age-hardenedalloyby causing a nearly complete
precipitationof the second phase in relativelycoarse form. Any process of annealingwill usually
reduce stresses,but if the treatment is appliedforthe sole purpose of such relief,itshould be
designatedstressrelieving.(2) The processof heatingand coolinga cold reducedsheetto induce
softnessand formability.Two types: box annealing(ColdSheetMill) and continuousannealing
(Galvanize Mill) AutomaticGauge Control (AGC) Computerizedsystemsusedto control and
maintain strip thickness;activated through x-ray measurementwithfeedbackloopsto control mill
screw down pressuresand/or speed.
AnnealingTwin - A twinformed in a metal duringan annealingheat treatment.
Anodizing(AluminumAcidOxide Coating) - A process of coating aluminumby anodic treatment
resultingin a thin filmof aluminumoxide of extreme hardness.A wide variety of dyescolored
coatings are possible by impregnationinprocess.
Arc Furnace - A steel meltingfurnace in which heat is generatedby an arc betweengraphite
electrodesandthe metal. Both carbon and alloysteelsare produced inelectricarc furnaces and
scrap rather than moltenmetal is usedas the base material.Furnaces with capacitiesup to 200
tons are now in use.
Arc Welding- A group ofweldingprocesseswhereinthe metal or metalsbeing joinedare
coalescedby heatingwith an arc, with or withoutthe applicationof pressure and with or without
the use of fillermetal.
Artifact - In microscopy, a false structure introduced duringpreparation of a specimen.
Artificial Aging - An aging treatment above room temperature.
ASME - Abbreviationfor Societyof Automotive Engineers.Thisorganization has specifiedcommon
and alloy steelsand copperbase alloys inaccordance with a numerical indexsystem allowing
approximationof the compositionof the metal. The last two digitsalways indicate the carbon
content,usually within0.05%. See AISI-SAE specifications.Anacceleratedcorrosion testin which
the metal specimensare exposedtoa fine mistof salt-water solutioneithercontinuouslyor
intermittently.
ASTM - Abbreviationfor American SocietyFor TestingMaterial. An organization for issuing
standard specificationsonmaterials,includingmetalsand alloys.
Atomic-HydrogenWeld- Arc weldingwithheat from an arc between two tungstenor other
suitable electrodesina hydrogen atmosphere.The use of pressure and fillermetal is optional.
Attenuation- The fractional decrease ofthe intensityof an energyflux,includingthe reduction of
intensityresultingfromgeometrical spreading,absorption, and scattering.
AusteniticGrainSize - The size of the grains insteel heatedinto the austeniticregion.
Austempering- Quenchinga ferrousalloy from a temperature above the transformationrange, in
a mediumhavinga rate of heat abstraction high enoughto preventthe formation of high-
temperature transformation products, and then holdingthe alloy, until transformation is

complete,at a temperature belowthat of pearlite formation and above that of martensite
formation.
Austenite - (1) A solidsolutionof one or more elementsinface-centeredcubiciron.(2) Phase in
certain steels,characterizedas a solidsolution,usuallyof carbon or iron carbide.Such steelsare
known as austenitic.Austenite isstable onlyabove 1333 (degrees) F.ina plain carbon steel,but
the presence ofcertain alloyingelements,suchas nickel and manganese,stabilizesthe austenitic
form, evenat normal temperatures.
AusteniticSteel - Steel,which,because of the presence ofalloyingelements,such as manganese,
nickel,chromium,etc., shows stabilityof Austenite at normal temperatures.
Austenitizing- Formingaustenite by heatinga ferrousalloy into the transformation range (partial
austenitizing) orabove the transformationrange (complete austenitizing).
Autofrettage - Pre-stressingahollowmetal cylinderby the use of momentary internal pressure
exceedingthe yieldstrength.
Autoradiograph - A radiograph recorded photographicallyby radiation spontaneouslyemittedby
radioisotopesthat are produced in,or addedto, the material. This technique identifiesthe
locations ofthe radioisotopes.
Bainite - A eutectoidtransformation product of ferrite and a fine dispersionofcarbide,generally
formedat temperaturesbelow840 to 930 F (450 to 500 C):upper bainite is an aggregate
containingparallel lath-shape unitsof ferrite,producesthe so-calledfeatheryappearance in
optical microscopy,and isformed at temperaturesabove about 660 F (350 C) ; lowerbainite
consistsof individual plate-shape unitsand is formedat temperaturesbelowabout 660 F (350 C).
Also,a slender,needle-like (acicular) microstructure appearingin spring steel stripcharacterized
by toughnessand greater ductilitythan temperedMartensite.Bainite isa decompositionproduct
of Austenite bestdevelopedatinterruptedholdingtemperaturesbelowthose formingfine
pearlite and above those givingMartensite.
Balanced Steel - Steelsin which the deoxidizationiscontrolledto produce an intermediate
structure betweena rimmedand killedsteel.Sometimesreferredtoas semi- killedsteels,they
possessuniformpropertiesthroughout the ingotand amongst theirapplicationsare boiler-plate
and structural sections.
Bamboo Grain Structure - A structure in wire or sheetin whichthe boundariesof the grains tend
to be alignednormal to the longaxis and to extendcompletelythroughthe thickness.
Band Saw Steel (Wood) - A hardenedtemperedbright polishedhighcarbon cold rolledspringsteel
strip producedespeciallyforuse in the manufacture of band saws for sawing wood, non ferrous
metals,and plastics.Usuallycarries some nickel and with a Rockwell value ofapproximately
C40/45.
Banded - The 1" or 1-1/4" strapping that is pulledtight around the body ofthe coil to keepthe
wraps tight is still on the coil; not broken
Banded Structure - Appearance of a metal showingparallel bands inthe directionof rollingor
working.

Banding - Inhomogeneousdistributionofalloyingelementsorphasesalignedin filamentsor
platesparallel to the directionof working.
Bark - Surface ofmetal, underthe oxide-scale layer,resultingfromheatingin an oxidizing
environment.Inthe case of steel, suchbark always suffersfrom decarburization.
Base Box - See Tin Plate Base Box.
Base Metal - A metal that oxidizeswhenheatedinair, e.g. lead,copper, tin,zinc, as opposedto
noble metalssuch as goldand platinum.
Basic Open Hearth - (See OpenHearth Process.)
Basic Oxygen Process - A steel making processwhereinoxygenof the highestpurity is blown onto
the surface of a bath of molteniron containedin a basic linedand ladle shapedvessel.The melting
cycle duration isextremelyshort withquality comparable to OpenHearth Steel.
Basic Process - A steel makingprocess eitherBessemer,openhearth or electric,inwhich the
furnace islinedwith a basic refractory. A slag, rich in lime,beingformedand phosphorus
removed.BASIC STEEL-(See Basic Process.)
<pBasic Steel - Steel meltedina furnace with a basic bottom and liningand under a slagcontaining
an excessof a basic substance such as magnesiaor lime.
Bath Annealing- Is immersionis a liquidbath (such as molten leador fusedsalts) heldat an
assignedtemperature-whenalead bath is used,the process is known as lead annealing.
Bauxite - The only commercial ore of aluminum,correspondingessentiallytothe formula
Al2O3xH2O.
Beading- Raising a ridge on sheetmetal.
Bearing Load - A compressive load supportedby a member,usuallya tube or collar, along a line
where contact is made with a pin,rivet, axle,or shaft.
Bearing Strength - The maximum bearingload at failure dividedbythe effective bearingarea.In a
pinnedor rivetedjoint,the affective area is calculatedas the product of the diameterof the hole
and the thicknessof the bearingmember.
BellyBand - The band (strapping) that goes around the outside diameterof a coil.
Bend Radius - The inside radius of a bent section.
Bend Test - Various tests whichis usedto ascertain the toughnessand ductilityof a metal product,
in which the material is bentaround its axis and/ or around an outside radius. A complete test
might specifysuch a bendto be both with and against the directionof grain. For testing,samples
shouldbe edge filedto remove burrs and any edgewise cracksresultingfrom slittingor shearing. If
a vice is to be employed,thenyoumust line the jaws with some soft metal,to permit a flow of the
metal inthe piece beingtested.

BerylliumCopper- An alloy ofcopper and 2-3% berylliumwithoptionallyfractional percentagesof
nickel or cobalt. Alloys ofthis seriesshow remarkable age-hardeningpropertiesandan ultimate
hardnessof about 400 Brinell (Rockwell C43). Because of such hardnessand good electrical
conductivity,beryllium-copperisusedinelectrical switches,springs,etc.
BessemerProcess - A process for making steel byblowingair through moltenpig iron containedin
a refractory linedvessel sothat the impuritiesare thus removedby oxidation.A methodof
producing steel,firstintroducedin the last century, where air isblown underpressure through
molteniron to remove the impuritiesby oxidation.The developmentofthe process has ledto the
presentday Basic OxygenSteel-makingplantsthat account for bulk productionof commercial
quality steelsinthe UK.
Beveling- Refersto pipe; the end preparation for fieldweldingofthe joint.
Billet- A solidsemi-finishedroundor square product that has beenhot workedby forging,rolling,
or extrusion.An iron or steel billethasa minimumwidthor thicknessof 1 1/2 in. and the cross-
sectional area varies from 2 1/4 to 36 sq. in.For nonferrousmetals,it may also be a casting
suitable for finishedorsemi-finishedrollingorfor extrusion.
Binary Alloy - An alloycontaining two elements,apartfrom minor impurities,as brass containing
the two elementscopperand zinc.
Black Annealing- A process of boxannealingor pot annealingferrousalloy sheet,strip or wire
after hot working and pickling.
Black Oil TemperedSpringSteel Strip (Scale Less Blue) - A flat cold rolledusually.70/.80 medium
high carbon steel strip, blue-blackincolor, whichhas beenquenchedinoil and drawn to desired
hardness.While it looksand acts much like blue temperedspringsteel and carries a Rockwell
hardnessof C44/47, it has not beenpolishedandis lowerin carbon content.Usedfor lessexacting
requirementsthanclock springsteel,such as snaps, lock springs,hold down springs,trap springs,
etc. It will take a more severe bendbefore fracture than will clock spring,but it doesnot have the
same degree ofspring-back.
Black Plate - A lightweightor a thin uncoated steel sheetor strip so calledbecause of its dark oxide
coloringprior to pickling.Two differentprocessesmanufacture it. (1) Form sheetbar on single
stand sheetmillsor sheetmillsin tandem. This methodis now almost obsolete.(2) On modern,
high speedcontinuoustandemcold reductionmillsfrom coiledhot rolledpickledwide strip into
ribbon woundcoils to finishedgage.Sizesrange from 12 to 32 inwidth, and in thicknessesfrom55
lbs. to 275 lbs. base box weight.It is usedeitheras is for stampings, or may be enameledor
paintedor tin or terne coated.
Blast Furnace - A vertical shaft type smeltingfurnace inwhich an air blast is used,usuallyhot, for
producing pigiron. The furnace is continuousin operationusingiron ore, coke,and limestone as
raw materials,which are charged at the top while the molteniron and slag are collectedat the
bottom and are tappedout at intervals.
Blister- A defectin metal,on or near the surface,resultingfrom the expansionof gas in a
subsurface zone.Very small blistersare calledpinheadsor pepperblisters.
BlisterSteel - High-carbon steel producedby carburizing wrought iron. The bar, originallysmooth,
is coveredwith small blisterswhenremovedfrom the cementation(carburizing) furnace.

Bloom - (1) AncientDefinition:ironproducedin a solidconditiondirectlyby the reductionof ore in
a primitive furnace.The carbon content is variable but usuallylow. Also known as bloomeryiron.
The earliestironmaking process, but still usedin underdevelopedcountries.(2) Modern
Definition:a semi-finishedhotrolledsteel product,rectangular in section,usuallyproducedon a
bloomingmill but sometimesmade by forging. (3) A semi-finishedhotrolledproduct,rectangular
in cross section,producedon a bloomingmill.For iron and steel,the width is not more than twice
the thickness,and the cross-sectional area is usuallynot lessthan 36 sq. in. Forgingsometimes
makes iron and steel blooms.
Bloomery- A primitive furnace usedfor direct reductionof ore to iron.
Blooming-Mill - Amill usedto reduce ingots to blooms,billetsslabs,sheet-baretc.
Blowhole - A cavity which was produced duringthe solidificationofmetal by evolvedgas, which in
failingto escape is heldin pockets.
Blue Annealing- Heating hot rolledferroussheetin an open furnace to a temperature withinthe
transformation range and then coolingin air, in order to softenthe metal.The formation of a
bluishoxide on the surface is incidental.A processof softeningferrousalloysin the form of hot
rolledsheet, by heatingin the openfurnace to a temperature within the transformation range and
then coolingin air. The formationof bluishoxide on the surface isincidental.
Blue Brittleness - Reducedductilityoccurring as a result ofstrain aging,when certain ferrousalloys
are worked between300 and 700 (degrees) F.Thisphenomenonmay be observedat the working
temperature or subsequentlyat lowertemperatures.Brittlenessexhibitedbysome steelsafter
beingheatedto some temperature withinthe range of 300 (degrees) to650 (degrees) F,andmore
especiallyifthe steel is workedat the elevatedtemperature.Killedsteelsare virtuallyfree of this
kind of brittleness.
Bluing- Subjectingthe scale-free surface ofa ferrous alloyto the action ofair, steam, or other
agents at a suitable temperature,thus forminga thinblue filmof oxide and improving the
appearance and resistance to corrosion. NOTE: Thisterm is ordinarily appliedto sheet,strip,or
finishedparts,It isused also to denote the heating of springsafter fabrication in order to improve
theirproperties.
Body-Centered- Having the equivalentlattice points at the corners of the unit cell,and at its
center;sometimescalledcentered,or space-centered.
Bonderizing- The coating of steel with a filmcomposed largelyof zincphosphate in orderto
developa betterbondingsurface for paint or lacquer.
Boron – B
Atomic Number:5
Atomic Weight:10.811
MeltingPoint:2348 K (2075°C or 3767°F)
BoilingPoint: 4273 K (4000°C or 7232°F)
Density:2.37 grams per cubic centimeter
Phase at Room Temperature: Solid

It is gray in color,ignitesat about 1112 (degrees) F.and burns with a brilliantgreenflame,but its
meltingpointin a non-oxidizingatmosphere isabout4000 (degrees) F.Boron is usedin steel in
minute quantitiesfor one purpose only- to increase the hardenabilityas in case hardeningand to
increase strength and hardnesspenetration.It isusually addedbetween.0005-.003% to
significantlyincrease the hardenability,especiallyforlow carbon alloys.It doesnot affect the
strength of ferrite,therefore notsacrificingductility,formabilityor machinabilityin the annealed
state.
Bottle Top Mold- Ingot mold, with the top constricted; usedin the manufacture of capped steel,
the metal in the constrictionbeingcoveredwith a cap fitting intothe bottle-neck,whichstops
rimmingaction by trapping escapinggases.
Box Annealing- Annealinga metal or alloyin a sealedcontainerunder conditionsthat minimize
oxidation.In box annealinga ferrousalloy,the charge is usuallyheatedslowly to a temperature
belowthe transformation range,but sometimesabove or withinit, and is then cooledslowly;this
process isalso calledclose annealingor pot annealing.
Brake - A piece of equipmentusedfor bendingsheet;alsocalleda bar folder.Ifoperated
manually,it is calleda hand brake; if powerdriven,it is calleda pressbrake.
Brale - A diamond penetrator,conical in shape,usedwith a Rockwell hardnesstester for hard
metals.
Brass - Thisis one of the most widelyusedof the copper-zincalloys;it is malleable andductile;has
excellentcold-working;poorhot working and poor machining properties;developshightensile
strength withcold-working.Temper is imparted by cold rollingand classifiedinhardness by the
numberof B&S Gagesof rolling(reductionin thickness) fromthe previousannealinggage. Rated
excellentforsoftsoldering;good for silveralloy brazingor oxyacetylene weldingandfair for
resistance or carbon arc welding.Usedfordrawn cartridges, tubes,eyeletmachine items,snap
fasteners,etc.
Brass (Yellow) - Strip.65% copper and 35% zinc.Known as 'HighBrass' or 'Two to One Brass'. A
copper-zincalloyyellowin color. Formerlywidelyusedbut now largelysupplantedby Cartridge
Brass.
Brasses - Copperbase alloysin which zinc isthe principal alloyingelement.Brass is harder and
mechanicallystronger than eitherof its alloyingelementscopperor zinc.It isformable and
ductile;developshightensile strengthwithcold-workingand is not heat treatable.
Braze Welding- A familyof weldingprocedureswhere metalsare joinedbyfillermetal that has a
meltingtemperature belowthe solidusof the parent metal,but above 840 (450 C).
Brazing - Joiningmetalsby fusionof nonferrousalloysthat have meltingpoints above 800 F
(425C), but lower than those ofthe metals beingjoined.May be accomplishedby a torch. Filler
metal isordinarily in rod form in torch brazing; whereasin furnace and dip brazing the work
material isfirst assembledand the fillermetal may thenbe appliedas wire,washers, clips,bands,
or may be bonded,as in brazingsheet.
Break Test (for temperedsteel) - A methodof testinghardenedand temperedhigh carbon spring
steel strip whereinthe specimenisheldand bent across the grain in a vice-like calibratedtesting

machine.Pressure is applieduntil the metal fractures at which pointa readingis taken and
compared with a standard chart of brake limitationsforvarious thicknessranges.
Bridling- The cold working ofdead soft annealedstrip metal immediatelypriorto a forming,
bending,or drawing operation.A process designedtoprevent the formulationof Luder'slines.
Caution-Bridledmetal shouldbe used promptlyand not permittedto (ofitself) returnto its pre-
bridledcondition.
Bright AnnealedWire - Steel wire brightdrawn and annealedin controllednon-oxidizing
atmosphere so that surface oxidation isreducedto a minimumand the surface remainsrelatively
bright.
Bright Annealing- The processof annealingin a protective atmosphere so as to prevent
discolorationof the bright surface desired.
Bright Basic Wire - Bright steel wire,slightlysofterthan Bright BessemerWire.Usedfor round
head wood screws,bolts and rivets,electricweldedchain,etc.
Bright BessemerWire - Stiff bright wire of hard temper. Normallywire is drawn down to size
without annealing.
Bright Dip - An acid solutioninto which piecesare dippedinorder to obtain a clean,bright surface.
Bright Drawing - The process of drawing hot rolledsteel through a die to impart close dimensional
tolerances,a bright, scale free surface,and improvedmechanical properties.The product is
termedbright steel.
Brinell Hardness Test - A common standard method ofmeasuring the hardness of materials.The
smooth surface ofthe metal issubjectedto indentationby a hardenedsteel ball under pressure.A
microscope then measuresthe diameterofthe indentationin the material surface,and the
hardnessvalue is read from a chart or determinedbya prescribedformula.
Brittle Fracture - Fracture precededbylittle or negligible plasticdeformation.
Brittleness- The tendencyof a metal or material to fracture withoutundergoing appreciable
plastic deformation.
Broaching - Multiple shaving,accomplishedby pushinga tool with steppedcutting edgesalongthe
piece,particularlythrough holes.
Bronze - Primarilyan alloy of copper and tin, but additionally,the name is usedwhenreferringto
other alloysnot containing tin, for example,aluminumbronze,manganese bronze,and beryllium
bronze.
Brown & Sharp Gages(B&S) - A standard seriesof sizesreferredtoby numbers,in whichthe
diameterof wire or thicknessof sheetmetal is generallyproducedand which is usedin the
manufacture of brass, bronze,copper,copper-base alloysand aluminum.These gage numbers
have a definite relationshiptoeach other.In thissystem,the decimal thicknessis reducedby 50%
everysix gage numbers- while temperisexpressedbythe numberof B&S gage numbersas cold
reducedin thicknessfrom previousannealing.For each B&S gage numberin thicknessreduction,
where is assigneda hardness value of 1/4 hard.

Buckle - Bulges and/ or hollowsoccurring along the length ofthe metal withthe edgesremaining
otherwise flat.Alternate bulgesor hollowsrecurring alongthe lengthof the product with the
edgesremainingrelativelyflat.Heating a metal beyondthe temperature limitsallowable forthe
desiredheattreatment, or beyondthe point where seriousoxidationor other detrimental action
begins.
Buffer- A substance addedto aqueoussolutionsto maintain a constant hydrogen-ion
concentration,evenin the presence ofacids or alkalis.
Burning - (1) Permanentlydamaginga metal or alloy by heatingto cause eitherincipientmelting
or intergranular oxidation.(2) In grindinggetting the work hot enoughto cause discolorationor to
change the microstructure by temperingor hardening.(3) Heatinga metal beyond the
temperature limitsallowable for the desiredheat treatment,or beyondthe pointwhere serious
oxidationor otherdetrimental action begins.
Burnishing- Smoothingsurfaces through frictionbetweenthe material and material such as
hardenedmetal media.
Burnt - A definitionapplyingtomaterial whichhas beenpermanentlydamagedby over-heating.
Burr - Roughnessleftby a cuttingoperation such as slitting,shearing,blanking , etc.
Bruise - A raised area in the steel causedby an objectgoing betweenthe work rolls and bruising
them.
Butcher Saw Steel - A hardened,tempered,and polishedhighcarbon spring steel stripmaterial
(carbon content is generallyhigherthan that of a material used for wood band saw applications)
with a Rockwell value of roughlyC47/49.
Butt Welding- (1) Joiningtwo edgesor endsby placing one against the other and weldingthem.
(2) The type of weldingthat fusesthe head endof one coil to the tail endof another, usingheat,
without overlappingthe strip.
Cake - A copperingot rectangular in cross section intendedforrolling.
Calcium– Ca
Atomic Number:20
Is usedin certain steelsto control the shape,size and distributionof oxide and/or sulfide
inclusions.Benefitsmayinclude improvedductility,impact strength and machinability.
Camber or Bow - (1) Deviationfrom edge straightness usuallyreferringto the greatestdeviationof
side edge from a straight line.(2) Sometimesusedto denote crown in rolls where the center
diameterhas beenincreasedto compensate for deflectioncause by the rollingpressure.(3)
Edgewise curvature. A lateral departure of a side edge ofsheetor strip metal from a straight line.

Camera Shutter Steel - Hardened, temperedandbright polishedextra flat and extra precision
rolled.Carbon content 1.25 - Chromium.15.
Canning - A disheddistortionina flat or nearly flat surface,sometimesreferredtoas oil canning.
CappedSteel - Semikilledsteel castina bottle-topmoldand coveredwith a cap fitting intothe
neck of the mold. The cap causes to top metal to solidify.Pressure isbuilt up inthe sealed-in
moltenmetal and resultsin a surface conditionmuch like that of rimmedsteel.
Carbide - A compound of carbon with one or more metallicelements.
Carbon – C
Atomic Number:6
Carbon has three allotropicmodifications,all non-metallic.Carbonis presentin practically all
ferrousalloys, and has tremendouseffecton the propertiesof the resultantmetal. Carbon is also
an essential componentof the cementedcarbides.Its metallurgical use,in the form of coke,for
reductionof oxides,isvery extensive.Isthe most important alloyingelementwhichisessential for
the formationof cementite,pearlite,spheriodite,bainite,andiron-carbonmartensite.Compared
to steelswith similarmicrostructures,strength, hardness,hardenability,and ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature are increasedwith increasing carbon content up to approximately.60%.
Toughnessand ductility ofpearlitic steelsare decreasedwith increasingcarbon content.
Carbon Equivalent- Referringto the rating of weld-ability,thisisa value that takes into account
the equivalentadditive effectsofcarbon and other alloyingelementsona particular characteristic
of a steel.For rating of weld-ability,aformula commonlyused is: CE = C + (Mn/6) + [(Cr+ Mo +
V)/5] + [(Ni + Cu)/15].
Carbon Free - Metalsand alloyswhich are practically free from carbon.
Carbon Potential - A measure of the capacity of an environmentcontainingactive carbon to alter
or maintain, under prescribedconditions,the carbon concentration in a steel.
Carbon Range - In steel specifications,the carbon range is the difference betweenthe minimum
and maximum amount of carbon acceptable.
Carbon Restoration - Replacingthe carbon lost in the surface layer during previousprocessingby
carburizing thislayer to substantiallythe original carbon level.
Carbon Steel - (1) Commonor ordinary steel as contrasted with special or alloy steels,which
contain other alloyingmetalsin additionto the usual constituentsof steel intheir common
percentages.(2) Steel containingcarbon up to about 2% and only

residual quantitiesof otherelementsexceptthose addedfor deoxidization,withsiliconusually
limitedto 0.60% and manganese to about 1.65%. Also termedplaincarbon steel,ordinary steel,
and straight carbon steel.
Carbonitriding- Introducingcarbon and nitrogen intoa solidferrousalloy by holdingabove Ac1 in
an atmosphere that contains suitable gasessuch as hydrocarbons, carbon monocide,and
ammonia. The carbonitridedalloy isusually quenchhardened.A case hardeningprocess in whicha
suitable ferrousmaterial is heatedabove the lowertransformation temperature in a gaseous
atmosphere
having a compositionthat resultsin simultaneousabsorptionof carbon and nitrogenby the
surface and, by diffusion,createsa concentration gradient.The process iscompletedby coolingat
a rate that produces the desiredpropertiesinthe work piece.
Carburizing(Cementation) - A process inwhich an austenitizedferrousmaterial isbrought into
contact with a carbonaceous atmosphere having sufficientcarbon potential to cause absorptionof
carbon at the surface and, by diffusion,create a concentration gradient.Introducing carbon into a
solidferrous alloyby holdingabove Ac1 in contact with a suitable carbonaceousmaterial, which
may be a solid,
liquid,or gas. The carburized alloyis usuallyquench hardened.Addingcarbon to the surface of
iron-base alloysby absorption through heating the metal at a temperature belowits meltingpoint
in contact withcarbonaceous solids,liquidsor gases. The oldestmethodof case hardening.
Cartridge Brass - 70% copper 30% zinc.This is one ofthe most widelyusedof the copper-zinc
alloys; it isformable and ductile and possessesexcellentcold-working,poorhot workingand poor
machiningproperties.Rated excellentforsoft-soldering;goodforsilveralloy brazing or
oxyacetylene weldingandfair for resistance of carbon arc welding.The alloydevelopshightensile
strength withcold-working.Temper isobtained by cold rolling.
Case - In a ferrousalloy, the outer portion that has beenmade harder than the innerportion, or
core.
Case Hardening- Carburizingand subsequentlyhardeningbysuitable heat-treatment,all or part of
the surface portions of a piece of iron-base alloy.Hardening a ferrous alloyso that the outer
portion, or case, ismade substantiallyharder than the inner portion,or core. Typical processes
usedfor case hardening are carburizing,cyaniding,carbonitriding, nitriding,inductionhardening,
and flame hardening. A genericterm coveringseveral processesapplicable to steel that change
the chemical compositionof the surface layer by absorption ofcarbon or nitrogen,or a mixture of
the two, and, by diffusion,create a concentration gradient.
Cast - (1) A term indicatingin the annealedstate as Cast Spring Steel Wire.(2) In reference to
Bright or PolishedStripSteel or Wire,the word cast impliesdiscolorationas a shadow. (3) A term
implyinga lack ofstraightness as in a coil set.
Cast Iron - Iron containing more carbon than the solubilitylimitin austenite (about2%).
Cast Steel - Steel inthe form of castings, usuallycontaininglessthan 2% carbon. Any objectmade
by pouring moltensteel intomolds.

Casting - (1) An object at or near finishedshape obtainedby solidificationofa substance ina mold.
(2) Pouringmolten metal into a mold to produce an object of desiredshape.
Cavitation - The formation and instantaneouscollapse of innumerable tinyvoids or cavitieswithin
a liquidsubjectedtorapid and intense pressure changes.Cavitationproduced by ultrasonic
radiation is sometimesusedto give violentlocalizedagitation.That causedby severe turbulent
flowoften leadsto cavitation damage.
Cavitation Damage - Wearingaway of metal through the formationand collapse ofcavities ina
liquid.
Cementation- (1) Introduction of one or more elementsintothe outerlayer of a metal objectby
means ofdiffusionat high temperature.(2) An obsolete processusedto convert wrought iron to
blistersteel by carburizing.Wrought iron bars were packedin sealedchestswith charcoal and
heatedat about 2000 F (1100 C) for 6 to 8 days. Cementationwasthe predominantmethod of
manufacturing steelsparticularly high-carbon tool steels,prior to the introductionof the Bessemer
and open-hearthmethods.
Cementite - A compound ofiron and carbon known as Iron carbide,which has the approximate
chemical formula Fe3C containing6.69% of carbon. Hard and brittle,it is the hard constituentof
cast iron,and the normal form in which carbon is presentin steel.It is magnetizable,butnot as
readilyas ferrite.It ischaracterized by an orthorhombiccrystal structure. Whenit occurs as a
phase insteel,the chemical compositionwill be alteredby the presence ofmanganese and other
carbide-formingelements.Ithas limitedsubstitutionsolubilityforthe carbide-formingelements,
notably manganese.
Centrifugal Casting- A casting made by pouring metal into a moldthat is rotated or revolved.
Ceramic Tools- Cutting toolsmade from fused,sintered,or cementedmetallicoxides.
Cerium– Ce
Atomic Number:58
Ceriumis the most abundant of the rare earth elementsandmakes up about 0.0046% of the
earth'scrust. Today, cerium isprimarily obtainedthrough an ionexchange process from monazite
sand (Ce,La, Th, Nd,Y)PO4),a material rich in rare earth elements.Pure ceriumwill ignite ifit is
scratched with a sharp object,but can be safelyused ifcombinedwith other materials.Ceriumis
one of the rare earth elementsusedto make carbon arc lights whichare usedin the motion
picture industryfor studio lightingand projector lights.Ceriumis also a componentof Misch
metal,a material that is usedto make flintsfor lighters.Ceriumisalso usedas a catalyst to refine
petroleumand as an alloyingagent to make special metals.
<pCermet- A powder metallurgyproduct consistingof ceramic particlesbonded witha metal.

Chafery- A charcoal-firedfurnace usedin early iron making processesto reheata bloomof
wrought iron for forging to consolidate the iron and expel entrappedslag.
Chamfer- (1) A beveledsurface to eliminate an otherwise sharpcorner. (2) A relievedangular
cutting edge at a tooth corner.
Charcoal Tin Plate - Tin Plate with a relativelyheavycoating of tin(higherthan the Coke Tin Plate
grades).
Charpy Test - A pendulum-type single-blowimpacttestin whichthe specimenusuallynotched,is
supportedat both endsas a simple beam and brokenby a fallingpendulum.The energyabsorbed,
as determinedby the subsequentrise of the pendulum,isa measure of impact strength or notch
toughness.
Chatter Marks - Parallel indentationsor marks appearing at right anglesto edge of stripforming a
pattern at close and regular intervals,caused by roll vibrations.
Chemical Milling- Removingmetal stock by controlledselective chemical etching.
Chemical Polishing- Improving the specular reflectivityofa metal surface by chemical treatment.
Chemical Treatment - A substance (chromic acid) that is appliedto hot dip galvanize sheetto
preventthe formationof white rust during shippingand storage.
Chemistry(ofslab) - The chemical compositionof the steel that in part determinesthe physical
and mechanical propertiesofthe product.
Chipping- A methodfor removingseams and other surface defectswithchisel or gouge so that
such defectswill not be workedinto the finishedproduct.Chippingisoften employedalsoto
remove metal that is excessive butnot defective.Removal ofdefectsby gas cutting is known as
deseamingor scarfing.
Chromadizing(Chromodizing,Chromatizing) - Formingan acid surface to improve paint adhesion
on aluminumor aluminumalloys,mainly aircraft skins,by treatment witha solutionof chromic
acid.
Chromium– Cr
Atomic Number:24
It is of bright silverycolor, relativelyhard.It isstrongly resistant to atmosphericand other
oxidation.It is of great value inthe manufacture of StainlessSteel as an iron-base alloy.Chromium
plating has also become a large outletfor the metal.Its principallyfunctionsas an alloyin steel
making; (1) increasesresistance to corrosion and oxidation(2) increasesharden-ability(3) adds
some strength at hightemperatures(4) resistsabrasion and wear (withhigh carbon). Straight
chromium steelsare susceptible to temperembrittlementandcan be brittle.

Chromium-Nickel Steel - Steel usuallymade by the electricfurnace process inwhich chromium and
nickel participate as alloyingelements.The stainlesssteel of18% chromium and 8% nickel are the
betterknown of the chromium-nickel types.
Chromizing- A surface treatmentat elevatedtemperature,generallycarriedout inpack, vapor, or
salt bath, in which an alloy is formedby the inward diffusionofchromium intothe base metal.
Cigarette Knife Steel - Hardened, temperedandbright polished,1.25 Carbon content- Chromium
.15. Accurate flatnessnecessaryand a high hardnesswith Rockwell C 51 to 53. Usual sizesare 4
3/4 wide and 6 wide x .004 to .010.
Clad Metal - A composite metal containingtwo or three layers that have beenbondedtogether.
The bondingmay have beenaccomplishedby co-rolling,welding,heavychemical depositionor
heavy electroplating.
Cladding- A process for coveringone metal with another. Usuallythe surfaces of fairlythick slabs
of two metals are brought carefullyinto contact and are thensubjectedto co-rollingso that a clad
compositionresults.In some instancesa thick electroplate may be depositedbefore rolling.
Cleavage - Fracture of a crystal by crack propagation across a crystallographic plane of low index.
Cleavage Fracture - Fracture of a grain,or most of the grains,in a polycrystalline metal by
cleavage,resultingin bright reflectingfacets.
Cleavage Plane - A characteristic crystallographic plane or setof planesin a crystal on which
cleavage fracture occurs easily.
ClusterMill - A rollingmill where each of the two working rollsof small diameteris supportedby
two or more back-up rolls.
Cobalt – Co
Atomic Number:27
A gray magneticmetal, of mediumhardness;it resistscorrosion like nickel,which it resembles
closely;meltingpoint2696 (degrees) F.;specificgravity 8.9. It is usedas the matrix metal in most
cementedcarbidesand is occasionallyelectroplatedinsteadof nickel,the sulfate beingusedas
electrolyte.Itsprincipal function as an alloyin tool steel;it contributesto red hardnessby
hardeningferrite.
CoefficientofExpansion - The ratio ofchange in length,area, or volume perdegree to the
correspondingvalue at a standard temperature.
Cogging- An intermediate rollingprocess whena hot ingot isreduced to a bloom or slab in a
cogging mill.

Coil Breaks - Creasesor ridgesacross a metal sheettransverse to the directionof coiling,
occasionallyoccurring whenthe metal has beencoiledhot and uncoiledcold.
Coil Set or Longitudinal Curl - A lengthwise curve or set foundin coiledstrip metalsfollowingits
coil pattern. A departure from longitudinal flatness.Can be removedby roller or stretcher leveling
from metalsin the softertemperranges.
Coil Weld- A jointbetweentwo lengthsofmetal withina coil - not always visible inthe cold
reducedproduct.
Coils- Coiledflatsheetor stripmetal- usuallyin one continuouspiece or length.
Coining- A processof impressingimagesor characters of the die and punch onto a plane metal
surface.
Coke Plate (Hot DippedTin Plate) - Standard tin plate,with the lightestcommercial tincoat, used
for food containers,oil canning, etc. A highergrade is the bestcokes, with special cokes
representingthe bestof the coke tinvariety. For high qualitiesand heaviercoatings.
ColdDrawing - The processof reducingthe cross sectional area of wire, bar or tube by drawing the
material through a die without any pre-heating.Colddrawingis usedfor the production of bright
steel bar in round square, hexagonal and flat section.The processchanges the mechanical
propertiesof the steel and the finishedproductis accurate to size,free from scale with a bright
surface finish.
ColdReduced Strip - Metal strip, producedfrom hot-rolledstrip,by rollingon a cold reductionmill.
ColdReduction - (1) Reduction of metal size,usuallyby rolling or drawing particularly thickness,
while the metal is maintainedat room temperature or belowthe recrystallizationtemperature of
the metal.(2) Reductionof strip thicknessthrough the use of force rather than heat.
ColdRolledFinish- Finishobtainedby cold rollingplain pickledsheetor strip with a lubricant
resultingin a relativelysmoothappearance.
ColdRolling - Rollingmetal at a temperature belowthe softeningpointof the metal to create
strain hardening(work-hardening).Same as coldreduction,exceptthat the workingmethod is
limitedto rolling.Coldrollingchanges the mechanical propertiesofstrip and producescertain
useful combinationsof hardness,strength,stiffness,ductilityand othercharacteristics known as
tempers,which see.
ColdShut - (1) A discontinuitythat appears on the surface of cast metal as a result oftwo streams
of liquidmeetingandfailingto unite.(2) A portion ofthe surface of a forging that is separated,in
part, from the main body of metal by oxide.(3) A condition ofbrittlenessexistinginsome metals
at temperaturesbelowthe recrystallizationtemperature.
ColdTreatment - Exposingsteel to suitable subzerotemperatures(-85 °C, or -120 °F) for the
purpose of obtainingdesiredconditionsor propertiessuch as dimensional ormicrostructural
stability.Whenthe treatmentinvolvesthe transformation of retainedaustenite,it isusually
followedbytempering.

ColdWork - Permanentstrain produced by an external force in a metal belowits recrystallization
temperature.
ColdWorking - Plastic deformation,such as rolling,hammering,drawing, etc., at a temperature
sufficientlylowto create strain-hardening(work-hardening).Commonly,the termrefersto such
deformationat normal temperatures.
Columbium- See NiobiumNb
Columnar Structure - A coarse structure of parallel columnsof grains, having the longaxis
perpendicularto the casting surface.
Commercial Bronze - A copper-zincalloy(brass) containing90% copper and 10% zinc; usedfor
screws,wire, hardware, etc. Althoughtermedcommercial-bronze itcontains no tin. It is
somewhat strongerthan copperand has equal or betterductility.
Commercial Quality Steel Sheet- Normally to a ladle analysisof carbon limitat 0.15 max. A
Standard QualityCarbon Steel Sheet.
Compressive Strength- The maximum compressive stressthat a material is capable of developing,
based on original area of cross section. In the case of a material which failsin compressionby a
shattering fracture,the compressive strengthhas a very definite value.Inthe case ofmaterials
which do not fail in compressionby a shatteringfracture, the value obtainedfor compressive
strength isan arbitrary value dependinguponthe degree ofdistortionthat is regardedas
indicatingcomplete failure of the material.
Constitute - A phase,or combinationof phases,that occurs in a characteristic configurationin a
microstructure.
Constitutional Diagram - A graphical representationofthe temperature and compositionlimitsof
phase fieldsinan alloy systemas they actually existunder specificconditionsofheatingand
cooling(synonymouswith phase diagram). A constitutional diagram may be, or may approximate,
and equilibriumdiagram,or may representmetastable conditionsor phases. Compare equilibrium
diagram.
ContinuousCasting - (1) A methodof producingblooms, billetsandslabs in longlengthsusing
water cooledmoulds. The castings are continuouslywithdrawn through the bottom of the caster
whilstthe teemingofthe metal isproceeding.The needfor primary and intermediate millsand
the storage and use of large numbersof ingot mouldsis eliminated.The continuouscasting
process isalso used inthe production ofcast iron, aluminumand copper alloys.(2) A casting
technique inwhich the ingot,billet,tube,or other shape is continuouslysolidifiedwhile itisbeing
poured,and the lengthis not determinedbymold dimensions.
Contact Corrosion - Whentwo dissimilarmetalsare in contact withouta protective barrier
betweenthemand they are in the presence of liquid,an electrolyticcell iscreated.The degree of
corrosion is dependentonthe area in contact and the electro-potential voltage ofthe metals
concerned.The lessnoble of the metals is liable tobe attacked, i.e.zinc will act as a protector of
steel insea water whereas copperor brass will attack the steel inthe same environment.
ContinuousFurnace - Furnace,in which the material beingheatedmovessteadilythrough the
furnace.

ContinuousPhase - In an alloyor portion ofan alloycontaining more than one phase, the phase
that formsthe background or matrix in which the other phase or phasesare presentas isolated
volumes.
ContinuousPickling- Passingsheetor stripmetal continuouslythrough a seriesofpicklingand
washing tanks.
ContinuousStrip Mill - A seriesofsynchronizedrollingmill stands in which coiledflat rolledmetal
enteringthe first pass (or stand) movesin a straight line and is continuouslyreducedin thickness
(not width) at each subsequentpass.The finishedstripis recoileduponleavingthe final or
finishingpass.
ControlledAtmosphere Furnaces - A furnace usedfor bright annealinginto whichspecially
preparedgases are introducedfor the purpose of maintaininga neutral atmosphere so that no
oxidizingreactionbetweenmetal and atmosphere takes place.
ControlledRolling- A hot rollingprocessin which the temperature ofthe steel is closely
controlled,particularly duringthe final rollingpasses, to produce a fine-grainmicrostructure.
Converter- A furnace in whichair isblown through the moltenbath of crude metal or matte for
the purpose of oxidizingimpurities.
CoolingStresses- Stressesdevelopedbyunevencontractionor external constraint of metal during
cooling;also those stressesresultingfromlocalizedplasticdeformationduring cooling,and
retained.
Copper– Cu
Atomic Number:29
MeltingPoint:1357.77 K (1084.62°C or 1984.32°F)
A characteristically reddishmetal of bright luster,highlymalleable and ductile and having high
electrical and heat conductivity;Universallyand extensivelyusedinthe arts in brasses, bronzes.
Universallyusedinthe pure state as sheet,tube,rod and wire and also as alloyedby other
elementsandan alloywith other metals.It is used incertain steelsto improve resistance to
atmosphericcorrosion.
Core - In the case of steel thisrefersto a componentthat has beencase-hardenedwhere the
centre is softer than the hard surface layer or case. It can also be appliedto the central part ofa
rolledrimmingsteel.
Coring - A variation of compositionbetweenthe centerand surface of a unit of structure (suchas a
dendrite,a grain or a carbide particle) resultingfrom non-equilibriumgrowthover a range of
temperature.

Corrosion - (1) Gradual chemical or electrochemical attack on a metal by atmosphere,moisture or
other agents.(2) Deteriorationof a metal by chemical or electrochemical reactionwith its
environment.
Corrosion Embrittlement- The embrittlementcausedincertain alloysby exposure to a corrosive
environment.Suchmaterial is usuallysusceptible tothe intergranular type of corrosion attack.
The severe lossof ductilityof a metal resultingfrom corrosive attack, usuallyintergranular and
oftennot visuallyapparent.
Corrosion Fatigue - Effectof the application of repeatedor fluctuatingstressesin a corrosive
environmentcharacterizedby shorter life than wouldbe encounteredas a result ofeithertheir
repeatedor fluctuating stressesalone or the corrosive environmentalone.
Corrugated - As a defect.Alternate ridgesand furrows.A seriesofdeepshort waves.
Coupon- A piece ofmetal from whicha test specimenisto be prepared - oftenan extra piece (as
on a casting or forging) or a separate piece made for test purposes(such as a test weldment).
CoveredElectrode - A filler-metal electrode,usedinarc welding,consistingofa metal core wire
with a relativelythick coveringwhich providesprotectionfor the moltenmetal form the
atmosphere,improvesthe propertiesofthe weldmetal and stabilizesthe arc. The covering is
usuallymineral or metal powdersmixedwith cellulose orotherbinder.
Creep- The flowor plastic deformationof metalsheldfor long periodsof time at stresseslower
than the normal yieldstrength.The effectis particularly important ifthe temperature of stressing
is above the recrystallizationtemperature of the metal. Time-dependentstrainoccurring under
stress.The creep strain occurring at a diminishingrate iscalledprimary creep;that occurring at a
minimumand almost constant rate, secondarycreep; that occurring at an acceleratingrate,
tertiary creep.
CreepLimit - (1) The maximum stressthat will cause lessthan a specifiedquantityofcreep ina
giventime.(2) The maximum nominal stress underwhich the creepstrain rate decreases
continuouslywith time under constant load and at constant temperature.Sometimesused
synonymouslywith creepstrength.
CreepStrength - (1) The constant nominal stress that will cause a specifiedquantityofcreepin a
giventime at constant temperature.(2) The constant nominal stressthat will cause a specified
creepreact at constant temperature.
Crevice Erosion - A type of concentration-cell corrosion;corrosion of a metal that is caused by the
concentration ofdissolvedsalts,metal ions,oxygen,or othergases, and such, in crevicesor
pockets remote from the principal fluid stream, witha resultantbuildingup of differential cells
that ultimatelycause deeppitting.
Critical CoolingRate - The minimum rate of continuouscoolingjust sufficienttopreventundesired
transformations. For steel,the slowestrate at which it can be cooledform above the upper critical
temperature to preventthe decompositionofaustenite at any temperature above the Ms. The
limitingrate at which austenite must be cooledto ensure that a particular type of transformation
product is formed.

Critical Point(s) - (1) The temperature or pressure at which a change in crystal structure, phase,or
physical propertiesoccurs. Same as transformation temperature.(2) In an equilibriumdiagram,
that specificvalue ofcomposition,temperature and pressure,or combinationsthereof,at which
the phasesof a heterogeneoussystemsare in equilibrium.(3) Temperaturesat which internal
changes or transformations take place withina metal eitheron a rising or fallingtemperature.
Critical Range - A temperature range inwhich an internal change takes place withina metal.Also
termedtransformation range.
Critical Strain - That strain whichresults inthe formation of verylarge grains during
recrystallization.
Critical Temperature - Synonymouswith critical pointif pressure is constant.
Crop - The defective endsofa rolledor forgedproduct which are cut off and discarded. Cuttingoff
endsof billetsingotsor slabs containing pipe or other defects.
CroppedHead/Tail - Squaring of the stripby use of mechanical shear.
Cross Rolling- (1) The rollingofsheetso that the directionof rollingischanged about 90 (degrees)
from the directionof the previousrolling.(2) A (hot) rollingprocessin which rollingreductionis
carried out in a directionperpendicularto,as well as a directionparallel to, the lengthof the
original slab. Rollingat an angle to the longdimensionofthe metal; usuallydone to increase
width.
Crossbow - Deviation from flatacross the strip width.
Cross Direction(in rolledor drawn metal) - The directionparallel to the axes of the rolls during
rolling.The directionat right anglesto the directionof rollingor drawing.
Crown or Heavy Center- A contour on a sheetor roll where the thicknessor diameterincreases
from edge to center. The difference instrip thicknessfrom centerto edge.Increasedthicknessin
the centerof metal sheetor strip as compared with thicknessat the edge.
Crucible - A ceramic pot or receptacle made of graphite and clay, or clay or other refractory
material,and usedin the meltingofmetal. The term is sometimesappliedto pots made of cast
iron, cast steel or wrought steel.
Crucible Steel - High-carbon steel producedby meltingblistersteel ina coveredcrucible.Crucible
steel was developedbyBenjaminHuntsman in about 1750 and remainedinuse until the late
1940's.
CryogenicApplications - Sub-zerotemperature applications.
Crystal - (1) A physicallyhomogeneoussolidinwhich the atoms. ionsor moleculesare arranged in
a three-dimensional repetitive pattern.(2) A coherentpiece of matter, all parts of which have the
same anisotropicarrangement of atom; in metals,usually synonymouswith grain and crystallite.
Crystalline - Composedof crystals.

Crystalline Fracture - A fracture of a polycrystalline metal characterized by a grainy appearance.
Compare fibrousfracture.
Crystallization- The formation of crystals by the atoms assuming definite positionsina crystal
lattice.This is what happenswhena liquidmetal solidifies.(Fatigue,the failure ofmetalsunder
repeatedstresses,issometimesfalselyattributedto crystallization.)
Cube-Centered- Metallography- (concerningspace lattices) - Body-centeredcubic.Refersto
crystal structure.
Cup Fracture (Cup-and-Cone Fracture) - Fracture, frequentlyseenintensile testpiecesofa ductile
material,in which the surface of failure on one portionshows a central flat area of failure in
tension,withan exteriorextendedrimof failure inshear. A type of fracture in a tensile test
specimenwhichlooks like a cup having the exteriorportion extendedwiththe interiorslightly
depressed.
Cupping- The fracture of severelyworkedrods or wire where one end has the appearance of a cup
and the other that of a cone.
Cutting Speed- The linearor peripheral speedofrelative motionbetweenthe tool and work piece
in the principal directionof cutting.
Cyaniding- Surface hardeningof an iron-base alloyarticle or portionof it by heating at a suitable
temperature in contact witha cyanide salt, followedby quenching.Introducingcarbon and
nitrogeninto a solidferrousalloy by holdingabove Ac1 in contact with moltencyanide of suitable
composition.The cyanidedalloy isusually quenchhardened.
Cyanide Hardening - A processof introducingcarbon and nitrogeninto the surface ofsteel by
heatingit to a suitable temperature in a molten bath of sodiumcyanide,or a mixture of sodium
and potassium cyanide,dilutedwithsodium carbonate and quenchingin oil or water. This process
is usedwhere a thin case and highhardness are required.
DC (Direct Chill) Casting- A continuousmethod ofmaking ingots or billetsfor sheetor extrusionby
pouring the metal into a short mold. The base of the mold isa platform that is gradually lowered
while the metal solidifies,the frozenshell ofmetal acting as a retainerfor the liquidmetal below
the wall of the mold.The ingot is usuallycooledby the impingementofwater directlyon the mold
or on the walls of the solidmetal as it is lowered.The lengthofthe ingot
is limitedbythe depthto whichthe platform can be lowered;therefore,itis oftencalledsemi
continuouscasting.
Dead Flat - Perfectlyflat.As pertainingto sheet,stripor plate.Refer to StretcherLeveling.
Dead Soft Annealing- Heating metal to above the critical range and appropriatelycoolingto
developthe greatestpossible commercial softnessor ductility.
Dead Soft Steel - Steel,normally made in the basic open-hearthfurnace or by the basic oxygen
process withcarbon lessthan 0.10% and manganese in the 0.20-0.50% range, completely
annealed.

Dead Soft Temper- Conditionof maximumsoftnesscommerciallyattainable inwire, strip,or
sheetmetal in the annealedstate.
Deburring - A methodwherebythe raw slit edge of metal is removedby rollingor filing.
Decarburization - Removal of carbon from the outer surface ofiron or steel,usuallyby heatingin
an oxidizingor reducingatmosphere.Water vapor, oxygenand carbon dioxide are strong
decarburizers.Reheatingwith adheringscale isalso strongly decarburizingin
action. Loss of carbon from the surface of a ferrous alloyas a result of heatingin a mediumthat
reacts with carbon.
Decoration (ofdislocations) - Segregationofsolute atoms to the line ofa dislocationin a crystal. In
ferrite,the dislocationsmay be decorated withcarbon or nitrogen atoms.
DeepDrawing - The process of coldworking or drawing sheetor strip metal blanksby meansof
dieson a pressinto shapeswhich are usually more or lesscup-like incharacter involving
considerable plasticdeformationof the metal. Deep-drawingqualitysheetor strip steel,ordered
or sold on the basisof suitabilityfor deep-drawing
Deformative Bands - Generally,bandsin whichdeformationhas beenconcentrated
unhomogeneously.
DegassingProcess (Insteel making) - Removing gasesfrom the moltenmetal by meansof a
vacuum process in combinationwith mechanical action.
Degenerate Structure - Usuallyrefersto pearlite that doesnot have an ideallylamellarstructure.
The degree ofdegeneracymay vary from slightperturbations in the lamellararrangement to
structures that are not recognizablylamellar.
Degreasing- Removal of grease,oil or other lubricant-type materialsby immersionin an effective
solvent.Usuallyare usedprimarily alkaline cleaners,althoughan organic solventsare useful.
Delta Iron - Allotropicmodificationof iron,stable above 2552 (degrees) F.to meltingpoint.It is of
body-centeredcubiccrystal structure.
Dendrite - A crystal that has grown intreelike branchingmode. A crystal that has a tree-like
branching pattern, beingmost evidentincast metalsslowlycooled through the solidification
range.
DendriticSegregation- Inhomogeneousdistributionofalloyingelementsthroughthe arms of
dendrites.
Deoxidation- (1) Removal of oxygenfrom moltenmetals by use of suitable chemical agents. (2)
Sometimesrefersto removal of undesirable elementsotherthanoxygenby the introductionof
elementsorcompounds that readily react with them.In steel sheet,strip,and wire technology,
the term refersto heat treatmentin a reducingatmosphere,to lessenthe amount of scale.
Descaling- It is necessaryto remove the scale from hot rolledbars or coil before bright drawing.
This is normallycarried out by shot blastingor pickling inacid. Other methodsof descalingsteel
products include sand blasting,flame descalingand tumbling.

Deseaming- A processof burning out defective areason the surface of ingots, bloomsor billets.
The conditionof the surface is such that it can then be rolledor forgedinto a satisfactory product.
DI (Ideal Diameter) - The diameterof a round steel bar that will hardenat the centerto a given
percentof martensite when subjectedtoan ideal quench(i.e.,Grossmanquench severity
H=infinity)
Diamond Pyramid Hardness Test - Thistest, more commonlyknown as the Vickers test,finds
greater use in the laboratory than the workshop. It employsa pyramid shapeddiamond with an
includedangle of 136o which is impressedintothe specimenusingloadsof 5 to 120 kg making a
small square impression.This testis usedfor finishedor polishedcomponentsbecause the
impressioncan be verysmall. The diamondpyramid hardness numberis obtainedfrom a
calculation basedon measuring the diagonals ofthe impressionsinthe steel.
Die - The term die is most commonly usedin tooling,i.e.presstools "punch and die" but there are
many other types ofdie,e.g. thread cutting dies,formingdies,forgingdies,die-castingdies,etc.
The term whenappliedto steel oftenrefersto drawing diesthrough whichhot rolledwire and bar
are drawn to produce the finishand dimensional accuracy that is requiredfor bright steel.
Die Sinking- Formingor machininga depressedpatternina die.
Die-Lines- Linesof markings dausedon drawn or extrudedproducts by minor imperfectionsinthe
surface of the die.
Diffusion- (1) Spreading ofa constituentin a gas, liquidor solid,tendingto make the composition
of all parts uniform.(2) The spontaneous
movementof atoms or moleculesto newsiteswithin a material.
Dilatometer- An instrumentfor measuringthe expansionor contraction of a solidmetal resulting
from heating,cooling,polymorphicchanges, etc.
Discoloration- A change in the visual appearance of the material caused by formation of oxides
whenexposedto contaminating atmosphere,always at elevatedtemperatures.
Dish - A concave surface departingfrom a straight line edge to edge.Indicatestransverse or across
the width.
Dislocation- A linear defectinthe structure of a crystal.
Doctor Blade Steel Strip - A hardenedand temperedspringsteel strip,usuallyblued,produced
from approximately.85 carbon coldrolledspring steel strip speciallyselectedforstraightnessand
good edges.Sometimeshandstraightenedor straightenedby grinding and cur to desiredlengths.
This product is usedin the printingtrade as a blade to uniformlyremove excessink(dope) from
the rolls;hence its name.
Dolomite - A natural carbonate of calciumand magnesiumgenerallyusedas a fluxin blast
furnaces.
Drawing - (1) Forming recessedparts by forcingthe plastic flowof metal indies.(2) Reducing the
cross sectionof wire or tubing by pullingit through a die.(3) A misnomerfor tempering.

Drawing Back - Reheatingafter hardeningto a temperature belowthe critical for the purpose of
changing the hardnessof the steel.
Draw Quality - More flexible grade ofsteel.
Dressingof coil - Eliminatingany damage or defectsfrom the outeror innerdiameterof the coil in
preparation for shipping.
Drill Rod - A term givento an annealedand polishedhighcarbon tool steel rod usuallyround and
centerlessground. The sizesrange in round stock from .013 to 1 1/2 diameter.Commercial
qualitiesembrace water and oil hardeninggrades. A lesspopular but neverthelessstandard grade
is a non-deformingquality.Drill Rods are usedprincipallyby machinistsand tool and die makers
for punches,drills,taps, dowel pins,screw machine parts, small tools,etc.
Drop Forging- A forging made with a drop hammer. An operationin which a metal shape is
formedby forcing hot metal into impressionsformedinsolidblocks of hardenedalloysteel,the
forgingdies.The diesare made in halves,one attached to the risingand fallingblock of the drop
forge and the other to the stationary anvil. Drop forgingsare widelyusedin the automotive
industry for crankshafts, stub-axles,gears,etc.
Drop Hammer - A forginghammer than dependsongravity for itsforce.
Dry RolledFinish- Finishobtainedby cold rollingon polishedrollswithout the use of any coolant
or metal lubricant, ofmaterial previouslyplainpickled,givinga burnishedappearance.
Ductile Crack Propagation - Slowcrack propagation that is accompanied by noticeable plastic
deformationand requiresenergyto be suppliedfromoutside the body.
Ductility - The abilityof a material to deformplasticallywithout fracturing, beingmeasuredby
elongationor reductionof area ina tensile test,by heightof cuppingin an Erichsen test or by
other means.The property of metalsthat enablesthemto be mechanicallydeformedwhencold,
without fracture. In steel,ductilityisusuallymeasured by elongationand reductionof area as
determinedina tensile test.
Duplex- A category of stainlesssteel withhigh amounts of chromium and moderate nickel
content. The duplexclass is so named because it isa mixture of austenitic(chromium-nickel
stainlessclass) and ferritic(plainchromium stainlesscategory) structures. This combinationwas
originatedto offermore strength than eitherof those stainlesssteels.Duplexstainlesssteels
provide high resistance to stress corrosioncracking (formationof cracks caused by a combination
of corrosion and stress) and are suitable for heatexchangers,desalinationplants,and marine
applications.
Durability - The ability to accept permanentdeformation.
Duralumin (obsolete) - The trade name appliedto the firstaluminum-copper-magnesiumtype of
age-hardenable alloy(17S), whichcontains nominally4% Cu,1/2% Mg. The term is sometimes
usedto include the class of wrought aluminum-copper-magnesiumalloysthatharden during aging
at room temperature.
Dye PenetrantInspection- A methodfor detectingsurface porosity or cracks in metal.The part to
be inspectediscleanedand coated with a dye whichpenetratesany flawsthat may be present.

The surface iswipedclean and coated with a white powder.The powderabsorbs the dye heldin
the defectsindicatingtheirlocation.
Earing - Wavy projectionsformedat the open endof a cup or shell in the course of deepdrawing
because of difference indirectional properties.Alsotermedscallop.The formationof scallops
(ears) around the top edge of a drawn part caused by differencesinthe directional propertiesof
the sheetmetal used.
Eddy-CurrentTesting- Nondestructive testingmethodin which eddy-currentflowisinducedin the
test object.Changesin the flowcaused by variations in the object are reflectedintoa nearby coil
or coils for subsequentanalysisby suitable instrumentationand techniques.
Edge Filing- A method wherebythe raw or slitedgesof strip metal are passed or drawn one or
more timesagainst a seriesoffiles,mountedat various angles.This method may be usedfor
deburringonly or filingto a specificcontour includinga completelyroundededge.
Edge Strain or Edge Breaks - Creasesextendinginfrom the edge of the temperrolledsheet.
Edges - Many typesof edgescan be producedin the manufacture offlat rolledmetal products.
Over the years the followingtypesof edgeshave become recognizedas standard intheir
respective fields..CopperBase Alloys- Slit,Slitand Edge Rolled,Sheared,Sawed, Machinedor
Drawn . SheetSteelsor AluminumSheet- Mill Edge,SlitEdge or ShearedEdge.. Strip Steelsand
StainlessStrip . No. 1 Edge A- Smooth, uniform,round or square edge,eitherslitor filedorslit and
edge rolledas specified,widthtolerance +/- .005. . No.2 Edge- A natural sound mill edge carried
through from the hot rolledband. Has not beenslit,filed,oredge rolled.Tolerancesnot closer
than hot-rolledstrip limits.. No. 3 Edge - Square,produced by slittingonly. Not filed.Width
tolerancesclose.. No. 4 Edge - A round edge producedby edge rollingeitherfrom a natural mill
edge or from slit edge strip. Not as perfectas No. 1 edge.Widthtolerancesliberal.. No. 5 Edge -
An approximatelysquare edge producedby slittingand filingor slittingand rollingto remove burr.
. No. 6 Edge - A square edge produced by square edge rolling,generallyfromsquare edge hot-
rolledoccasionallyfrom slit strip. Widthtolerancesand finishnot as exacting as No. 1 edge.
Edging - The dressingof metal strip edgesby rolling,filingor drawing.
Egg-ShapedCoils- Coil that issagging at the center.
Elastic Limit - The maximum stress to which a material may be subjectedwithoutany permanent
strain remainingupon
complete release ofstress.Maximum stressthat a material will stand before permanent
deformationoccurs
Elastic Strain - Dimensional changesaccompanying stress where the original dimensionsare
restoredupon release ofthe stress.
Elasticity - The property which enablesa material to return to its original shape and dimension.
Electocleaning(ElectrolyticBrightening) - Ananodic treatment. A cleaning,polishing,or oxidizing
treatment inwhich the specimenor work is made the anode in a suitable electrolyte;an inert
metal isused as cathode and a potential isapplied.

Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) - Steelmakingfurnace where scrap is generally100% ofthe charge. Heat
is suppliedfromelectricitythat arcs from the graphite electrodesto the metal bath. Furnaces may
be eitheran alternatingcurrent (AC) or direct current (DC).DC unitsconsume lessenergyand
fewerelectrodes,butthey are more expensive.
Electric Furnace Steel - Steel made in any furnace where heat is generatedelectrically,almost
always by arc. Because ofrelativelyhighcost, only tool steelsand otherhigh-value steelsare
made by the electricfurnace process.
Electrical Steels- Steelswhichare characterized by their magneticpropertiesand are intendedfor
the manufacture ofelectrical circuits. They are suppliedinthe form ofcold rolledsheetor strip,
generallylessthan 2mm thick and up to 1500mm wide.Grain orientatedsteelshave preferential
magnetic propertiesinthe directionof rollingand non- grain orientatedsteels have similar
magnetic propertiesbothtransverselyand inthe directionof rolling.
Electocleaning- (ElectrolyticBrightening) Ananodic treatment. A cleaning,polishing,or oxidizing
treatment inwhich the specimenor work is made the anode in a suitable electrolyte;an inert
metal isused as cathode and a potential isapplied.
Electrogalvanized- Zinc plating processwherebythe moleculesonthe positivelychargedzinc
anode attach to the negativelychargedsheetsteel.The thicknessof the zinc coating isreadily
controlled.By increasingthe electriccharge or slowing the speedof the steel through the plating
area, the coating will thicken.
Electro-Galvanizing- GalvanizingbyElectro depositionofzincon steel.
ElectrolyticTin Plate - Black Plate that has beenTin plated on both sideswith commerciallypure
tin by electrode position.
Electron Beam Microprobe Analyzer- An instrumentfor selective chemical analysisof a small
volume of material.An electronbeam bombards the area of interestand x-radiationthereby
emittedisanalyzed in a spectrometer.
Electroplating- The productionof a thin coating ofone metal on anotherby electdeposition.Itis
very extensivelyusedinindustryand is continuingto enlarge its useful functions.Variousplated
metal and combinationsthereofare beingusedfor differentpurposes,to illustrate:1. Decorative
and protection against corrosion; copper,nickel and chromium. 2. Protection against corrosion;
cadmium or zinc . 3. Protectionagainst wear; chromium . 4. Build-upof a part or parts undersize;
chromium or nickel . 5. Pate for rubber adhesion;brass . 6. Protectionagainst carburization and
for brazing operations....copperand nickel The production of a thin coating of one metal on
another by electro-deposition.Itisvery extensivelyusedinindustryand iscontinuingto enlarge
its useful functions.Variousplated metalsand combinationsthereofare beingused for different
purposes.
Electropolishing- Improvingthe specularreflectivityofa metal surface by electrochemical
dissolution.Methodfor impartingbrilliance to stainlesssteel byremoving a thin layer of the
surface akin to a reverse electroplatingprocesswithoutany working of the underlyingmetal.Also
known as bright finishing.The process highlightssurface irregularities(i.e.roll grit pattern, pickle
matte, scratches, pitsand digs).At best,very special processingis requiredto enhance surface to
be electropolished.

ElectroslagRefining- A specializedsteel makingprocessin whicha rolledor a cast ingot in the
form of an electrode isre-meltedina water cooledcoppermould. The meltingisactivated by
resistive heatgeneratedin a conductive slag. The resultingproduct has a similarbasic chemical
compositionto the original ingot, but is characterizedby high purity and low inclusioncontent.
Typical applicationsinclude high integritycomponentsfor the aerospace industry.
ElevatedTemperature Drawing - A processof drawing steel bars at elevatedtemperatures
(normally250-300oC) which underoptimum conditionsproduce steelsthat have highertensile
and yieldstrengths than those cold drawn withthe same degree ofreduction.
Elongation- (1) Increase inlengthwhich occurs before a metal is fractured, whensubjectedto
stress.This is usuallyexpressedas a percentage of the original lengthand is a measure of the
ductilityof the metal.(2) In tensile testing,the increase in the gauge length,measuredafter
fracture of the specimenwithinthe gauge length,usuallyexpressed asa percentage of the original
gauge length.
ElongationAfter Fracture - In tensile testing,the increase in the gauge lengthmeasuredafter
fracture of the specimenwithinthe gauge lengthand usuallyexpressedas a percentage of the
original gauge length.
Embossing- Raising or indentinga designin reliefona sheetor strip of metal by passingbetween
rollsof desiredpattern.
End-QuenchHardenabilityTest (JominyTest) - A laboratory procedure for determiningthe
hardenabilityof a steel or other ferrousalloy. Hardenabilityis determinedbyheatinga standard
specimenabove the uppercritical temperature,placing the hot specimenin a fixture so that a
stream of cold water impingesonone end,and, after coolingto room temperature is
completed, measuringthe hardness near the surface of the specimenat regularlyspaced intervals
along its length.The data are normallyplottedas hardnessversus distance from the quenched
end.
Endurance Limit - Same as fatigue limit.Maximumalternating stresswhich a givenmaterial will
withstand for an indefinite numberoftimeswithout causing fatigue failure.
Epitaxy - Inducedorientationof the lattice of a crystal of a surface depositby the lattice of the
substrate crystal.
EquilibriumDiagram (1) A diagram constructed from thermal and otherdata showingthe limitsof
compositionand temperature within whichthe various constituentsor phases of alloysare stable.
(2) A graphical representationofthe temperature,pressure and compositionlimitsof phase fields
in an alloy systemas theyexistunder conditionsof thermodynamical equilibrium.Incondensed
systems,pressure is usuallyconsideredconstant.
EquiaxedCrystals - Crystals,each of which has axes approximatelyequal in length.These are
normally presentinthe centre ofa steel ingot.
EquiaxedStructure - A structure in which the grains have approximatelythe same dimensionsin
all directions.

ErichsenTest - A cupping test inwhich a piece ofsheetmetal, restrainedexceptat the center,is
deformedby a cone-shapedspherical-endplungeruntil fracture occurs. The heightof the cup in
millimetersatfracture is a measure of the ductility.Similar to the OlsenTest. Readingsare in
millimeters.
ERW - ElectricResistance Welding(usedinformationof pipe).
Etchant - A chemical solutionusedto etcha metal to reveal structural details.
Etching - (1) In metallography,the process of revealingstructural detailsby the preferential attack
of reagentson a metal surface. (2) Subjectingthe surface of a metal to preferential chemical or
electrolyticattack to reveal structural details.
Eutectic - A mixture of two or more constituentswhich solidifysimultaneouslyoutofthe liquidat
a minimumfreezingpoint.
Eutectoid- (1) An isothermal reversible transformationin which a solidsolutionis convertedinto
two or more intimatelymixedsolids,the number of solidsformedbeingthe same as the number
of componentsin the system. (2) An alloyhaving the compositionindicatedby the eutectoidpoint
on an equilibriumdiagram.(3) An alloystructure of intermixedsolidconstituentsformedby a
eutectoidtransformation.
EutectoidSteel - Steel representingthe eutectoidcompositionofthe iron-carbon system,with
about 0.80% to 0.83% carbon, the eutectoidtemperature beingabout 1333 (degrees) F.Such steel
in the annealedconditionconsists exclusivelyofpearlite.Steelswithlessthan thisquota ofcarbon
are known as hypo-eutectoidandcontain free ferrite inaddition to the pearlite.Whenmore
carbon ispresent,the steel isknown as hyper-eutectoidandcontainsfree cementite.The
presence of certain elements,suchas nickel or chromium,lowersthe eutectoidcarbon content.
Exfoliation- A type of corrosion that progressesapproximatelyparallel to the outer surface of the
metal,causing layers of the metal to be elevatedbythe formationof corrosion product.
Expander Steel - Hardened and tempered,blue polished.Carboncontentabout 1.00, Chromium
.17. Usedfor the expandersinoil pistonrings. Hardness 30 N 70 to 73. Range of sizesrun for
grooves3/32 to 1/4 wide with the steel approximately.003 lessthan the groovesand thickness
from .012 to .020.
Extensometer- An apparatus for indicatingthe deformationof metal while it is subjectedto
stress.
ExtensometerTest- The measurementofdeformationduring stressingin the elastic range,
permittingdeterminationofelasticpropertiessuch as propertiessuchas proportional limit,proof
stress,yieldstrength by the offsetmethodand so forth. Requiresthe use of special
testingequipmentand testingproceduressuch as the use of an extensometerorthe plotting of a
stress-straindiagram.
Extra Hard Temper- In brass mill terminology,Extra Hard issix B&S numbershard or 50.15%
reductionfrom the previousannealingor soft stage.

Extra Spring Temper- In brass mill terminology.Extra Springis ten numbershard or 68.55%
reductionin thicknessfrom the previousannealingor soft stage.
Extrusion - Shaping metal intoa chosencontinuous form by forcingit through a die of appropriate
shape.The production of a section by forcinga billetto flowthrough a die.Oftenusedfor
producing complexsections,the processis used withboth hot and cold metal.Seamlesstubesare
producedby forcinga hot billetto flowthrough a die over a mandrel positionedcentrallyinthe
die.
Eye of Coil - The center of the coil as wound.
Face Centered(concerningcubicspace lattices) - Having equivalentpointsat the corners ofthe
unit cell and at the centers of itssix faces.A face-centeredcubicspace lattice is characteristic of
one of the close-packedarrangementsof equal hard spheres.
Fatigue - The phenomenonleadingtofracture under repeatedor fluctuatingstresseshaving a
maximum value lessthan the tensile strengthof the material. Fatigue fractures are progressive,
beginningas minute cracks that grow underthe action of the fluctuatingstress.
Fatigue Life - The numberof cycles of stressthat can be sustainedprior to failure for a stated test
condition.
Fatigue Limit - The maximumstress belowwhich a materiel can presumable endure an infinite
numberof stress cycles.If the stressis not completelyreversed,the value of the mean stress,the
minimumstress or the stressratio shouldbe stated.
Fatigue Strength - The maximumstress that can be sustainedfor a specifiednumberofcycles
without failure,the stress beingcompletelyreversedwithineachcycle unlessotherwise stated.
Ferrite - Generally,asolidsolutionof one or more alloyingelementsinthe bcc polymorph of iron (
-Fe).Specifically,incarbon steels,the interstitial solidsolutionofcarbon in -Fe.A solidsolutionof
one or more elementsinbody-centeredcubiciron.Unlessotherwise designated(forinstance,as
chromium ferrite),the solute isgenerallyassumedto be carbon. On some equilibriumdiagrams
there are two ferrite regionsseparatedby an austenite area. The lowerarea is alpha ferrite;the
upper,delta ferrite.Ifthere is no designation,alphaferrite is assumed.
Ferrite Banding - Parallel bands of free ferrite alignedinthe directionof working.Sometimes
referredto a ferrite streaks.
Ferrite-pearlite Banding- Inhomogeneousdistribution offerrite andpearlite alignedin filaments
or plates parallel to the directionof working.
FerriticGrain Size - The grain size of the ferric matrix of a steel.
Ferroalloy- An alloy ofiron with a sufficientamountof some elementor elementssuchas
manganese,chromium,or vanadium for use as a means in addingthese elementsintomolten
steel.
Ferro-Manganese - An alloyof iron and manganese (80% manganese) usedin making additionsof
manganese to steel or cast-iron. Ferroalloy,An alloy ofiron with a sufficientamountof some

elementorelementssuchas manganese,chromium,or vanadiumfor use as a means inadding
these elementsintomoltensteel.
Ferrous- Relatedto iron (derivedfromthe Latin ferrum).Ferrousalloys are, therefore,ironbase
alloys.
Fiberor Fibre - (1) The characteristic of wrought metal that indicatesdirectional properties.Itis
revealedby etchinga longitudinal sectionor manifestedby the fibrous appearance of a fracture. It
is causedchieflyby extensionofthe constituentsofthe metal,both metallicand nonmetallic,in
the directionof working.(2) The pattern of preferredorientationofmetal crystal after a given
deformationprocess.Direction in whichmetals have beencausedto flow, as by rolling,with
microscopic evidence inthe form of fibrousappearance in the directionof flow.
FiberStress - (1) Local stressthrough a small area (a point or line) on a sectionwhere the stress is
not uniform,as in a beam undera bendingload. (2) Unit stresswhich existsat any givenpoint in a
structural elementsubjectedtoload;givenas load per unitarea.
FibrousFracture - A fracture whose surface ischaracterized by a dull gray or silkyappearance.
FiledEdges- Finishededges,the final contours of whichare produced by drawing the strip overa
seriesofsmall steel files.Thisis the usual and accepted methodof dressingthe edgesofannealed
spring steel stripafter slittingin cases where edgewise slittingcracks are objectionable orslitting
burr is to be removed.
FillerMetal - A third material that is meltedconcurrentlywith the parent metal during fusionor
braze welding.It isusually, but not necessarily,ofdifferentcompositionfromthe parent metals.
Finery- A charcoal-fueledhearthfurnace usedin early processesforconverting cast iron to
wrought iron by meltingand oxidizingit inan air blast, thenrepeatedlyoxidizingthe product in
the presence ofa slag.The carbon oxidizesmore rapidlythan the iron so that a wrought iron of
low carbon content is produced.
FinishedSteel - Steel that is ready for the market withoutfurther work or treatment.Blooms,
billets,slabs,sheetbars, and wire rods are termedsemi-finishedproducedbythe in-the-line
thermal treatmentfollowingelectrode position.
FinishingTemperature - The temperature at which hot working iscompleted.
Firecrack - Raisedarea on the strip causedby a thermal crack on the work roll surface.
Fisheyes- Areas on a fractured steel surface having a characteristic white crystalline appearance.
Flakes- Short discontinuousinternal fissuresin ferrousmetalsattributed to stressesproduced by
lacalizedtransformation and decreasedsolubilityofhydrogenduring coolingafter hot working. In
a fractured surface,flakesappear as bright silveryareas; on an etchedsurface they appear as
short discontinuouscracks. Alsocalledshatter cracks and snowflakes.
Flame Annealing- A processof softeninga metal by the application of heat from a high-
temperature flame.

Flame Hardening - A processof hardeninga ferrousalloy by heating it above the transformation
range by means of a high-temperature flame,andthen coolingas required.
FlapperValve Steel - An extremelyflat,very smooth,very accurate to gage, polished,hardened
and temperedspringsteel produced from approximately1.15 carbon. The name is derivedfrom
its common and principle usage.
Flare Test- A test appliedto tubing, involvinga taperedexpansionover a cone. Similarto pin
expansiontest.
Flash - (1) In forging, the excessmetal forcedbetweenthe upper and lowerdies.(2) In die casting,
the finof metal whichresultsform leakage betweenthe mating die surfaces.(3) In resistance butt
welding,a finformed perpendiculartothe directionof appliedpressure.
Flash Welding- A resistance butt weldingprocessin whichthe weldis producedover the entire
abutting surface by pressure and heat, the heat beingproduced by electricarcs betweenthe
membersbeingwelded.
Flat Latch Needle Steel - Suppliedcoldrolledandannealed.Carbon content .85. Suppliedbothin
coil and flat length.Usedto make flat latch needleswhichare usedin the manufacture of knitted
goods.
Flat Wire - A flat ColdRolled,prepared edge sectionup to 1 1/4 wide,rectangular in shape.
Generallyproducedfromhot rolledrods or speciallypreparedround wire by one or more cold
rollingoperations,primarily for the purpose of obtainingthe size and sectiondesired.May also be
producedby slittingcoldrolledflat metal to desiredwithfollowedby edge dressing.
FlowLines - (1) Texture showingthe directionof metal flowduring hot or cold working.Flow lines
oftencan be revealedby etchingthe surface or a section ofa metal part. (2) In mechanical
metallurgy,paths followedbyvolume elementsofmetal duringdeformation.Always visible to a
greater or lessdegree whena longitudinal sectionhas beensubjectedtoMacro etching,indicating
the directionof workingor rolling.
FlowStress - The uni-axial true stress requiredto cause plasticdeformationat a specifiedvalue of
strain. The shear stressrequiredto cause plastic deformationof solidmetals.
Fluting- Kinkingor breakage due to curving of metal strip on a radius so small,with relationto
thickness,as to stretchthe outer surface above its elasticlimit.Not to be confusedwith the
specificproduct, FlutedTubes.
Flux- (1) In refining,a material usedto remove undesirable substancesas a moltenmixture.It
may also be usedas a protective coveringfor moltenmetal.(2) In welding,a material usedto
preventthe formationof, or to dissolve andfacilitate the removal of,oxidesand other undesirable
substances.
Foil - Metal in sheetform lessthan 0.006 in.in thickness.
Folds- Defectscaused in metal by continuedfabrication of overlappingsurfaces.
Forge Welding- Weldinghotmetal by applyingpressure or blows.

Forging - Plasticallydeformingmetal,usually hot, into desiredshapeswithcompressive force,with
or without dies.
Fractography - Descriptive treatmentof fracture, especiallyinmetals,withspecificreference to
photographs of the fracture surface.Macrofractography involvesphotographs at low
magnification;microfractography, at high magnification.
Fracture - Surface appearance ofmetals whenbroken.
Fracture Test - Breaking a specimenand examiningthe fractured surface with the unaidedeye or
with a low-powermicroscope to determine such thingsas composition,grain size,case depth,
soundness,and presence ofdefects.Nickingand breaking a bar by means ofsudden impact, to
enable macroscopic study of the fractured surface.
Fragmentation- The subdivisionofa grain into small discrete crystallitesoutlinedby a heavily
deformednetworkof intersectingslipbands as a resultof cold working. These small crystals or
fragments differfromone another inorientationand tendto rotate to a stable orientation
determinedbythe slipsystems.
Free Machining- Pertains to the machiningcharacteristics of an alloy to which an ingredienthas
beenintroducedto give small broken chips,lowerpower consumption,bettersurface finish,and
longertool life;among such additionsare sulfur or lead to steel,leadto brass, lead and bismuthto
aluminum,and sulfur or seleniumtostainlesssteel.
Fretting(FrettingCorrosion) - Action that results insurface damage, especiallyina corrosive
environment,whenthere is relative motionbetweensolidsurfacesin contact under pressure.
FrictionGougesor Scratches - A seriesofrelativelyshort surface scratches variable in form and
severity.Referto Galling.
Full Annealing(ferrousmaterials - (1) Annealinga ferrous alloyby austenitizingand thencooling
slowlythrough the transformation range. The austenitizingtemperature tohypo-eutectoidsteel is
usuallyabove Ac3; and for hypereutectoidsteel,usuallybetweenAc1and Ac (cm).Used
principallyon iron and steel,meansheating the metal to about 100 (degrees) F.above the critical
temperature range, followedbysoaking at thispoint and slow coolingbelowthe critical
temperature.(2) An annealingtreatment inwhich a steel isausenitized byheatingto a
temperature above the upper critical temperature (A3 or Acm) and thencooledslowlyto room
temperature.A typical coolingrate would be 210F/h 100 C/h. Compare normalizing.Use ofthe
term annealingwithout qualificationimpliesfull annealing.
Full FinishPlate - Steel sheetor strip, reducedeitherhot or cold,cleaned,annealed,and thencold-
rolledto a bright finish.
Full Hard Temper- (A) (No.1 Temper) In low carbon sheetor strip steel,stiffand springy, not
suitable for bendinginany direction.It is the hardesttemper obtainable by hard cold rolling.(B) In
StainlessSteel Strip,tempersare basedon minimumtensile or yieldstrength.For Chromium-
Nickel grades Full Hard temperis 185,000 TS, 140,000 YS Min. Term also usedin connectionwith
copper base alloys and consideredsynonymouswith Hard Temper.
FusionWelding- Any weldingprocessin which fusionisemployedto complete the weld.

Gages- Mfrs. standard numberingsystemsindicating decimal thicknessesordiameters.
Galling- (1) The damaging of one or both metallicsurfacesby removal of particlesfrom localized
areas due to seizure duringslidingfriction.(2) Developinga conditionon the rubbingsurface of
one or both mating parts where excessive frictionbetweenhighspotsresultsinlocalizedwelding
with substantial spallingand a further rougheningofthe surface.
GalvanicCorrosion - Corrosionassociated withthe current of a galvanic cell consistingof two
dissimilarconductors in an electrolyte or two similar conductors in dissimilarelectrolytes.Where
the two dissimilarmetalsare in contact, the resultingaction is referredto as couple action.
Galvanizing- Coating steel withzinc and tin(principallyzinc) for rust proofingpurposes.Formerly
for the purpose of galvanizing,cut lengthsteel sheetswere passedsinglythrough a bath of the
moltenmetal. Today'sgalvanizingprocessingmethod consistsof uncoilingand passing the
continuouslengthof successive coilseitherthrough a moltenbath of the metal termedHot
DippedGalvanizingor by continuouslyzinc coating the uncoiledsheetelectrolytically-termed
Electro-Galvanizing.
Galvanneal Furnace - A furnace which is placedover the strip as it exitsthe zincbath for the
purpose of producing a fullyalloyediron-zinccoating. The furnace can be gas firedor induction.
Gamma Iron - The form of iron stable between1670 (degrees) F.,and 2550 (degrees) F.,and
characterized by a face-centeredcubiccrystal structure.
Gas Welding- Weldingwitha gas flame.
Gauge - A term for thickness.
GFM- Gyratory Forging Machine - A machine designedto hot forge a cylindrical bar shape while it
is turning at speed.
GildingMetal - A copper-zincalloycontaining95% copper and 5% zinc.While similarto deoxidized
copper inphysical properties,itis somewhat stronger and very ductile.It has thermal and
electrical conductivityslightlybetterthan halfthat of electrolyticcopperand corrosion resistance
comparable to copper.
Grain - A solidpolyhedral (or many sided crystal) consistingof groups of atoms bound togetherin
a regulargeometricpattern. In mill practice grains are usuallystudiedonly as they appear in one
plane.(1) (Directionof) Refers to grain fiberfollowingthe directionof rollingand parallel to edges
of strip or sheets.(2) To bend across the grain is to bendat right anglesto the directionof rolling.
(3) To bend with the grain is to bend parallel to the directionof rolling.In steel,the ductilityin the
directionof rollingis almost twice that at right angles to the directionofrolling.An individual
crystal in a polycrystalline metal or alloy,includingtwinnedregionsor sub-grainsifpresent.
Grain Boundary - Boundingsurface betweencrystals.Whenalloys yieldnewphases(as in cooling),
grain boundariesare the preferredlocationfor the appearance of the new phase.Certain
deterioration,such as seasoncracking and caustic embrittlement,occur almost exclusivelyatgrain
boundaries.
Grain-BoundaryLiquidation- An advanced stage of overheatinginwhich material in the regionof
austeniticgrain boundariesmelts.Also known as burning.

Grain-BoundarySulfide Precipitation - An intermediate stage of overheatinginwhich sulfide
inclusionsare redistributedtothe austeniticgrain boundariesby partial solutionat the
overheatingtemperature and reprecipitationduringsubsequentcooling.
Grain Coarsening- A heat treatmentthat producesexcessivelylarge austeniticgrains.
Grain Flow- Fiberlike linesappearingon polishedand etched sectionsof forgings,caused by
orientationof the constituentsofthe metal inthe directionof working duringforging.
Grain Growth- An increase in metalliccrystal size as annealingtemperature is raised;growth
occurs by invasionof crystal areas by other crystals. An increase inthe average size of the grains in
polycrystalline metal or alloy, usuallya result of heatingat elevatedtemperature.
Grain Size - (1) For metals,a measure ofthe areas or volumesofgrains in a polycrystalline
material,usually expressedasan average when the individual sizesare fairlyuniform. Grainsizes
are reportedin terms of grains per unitarea or volume,average diameter,or as a grain-size
numberderivedform area measurements.Average diameterof grains in the metal under
consideration,or alternatively,the number ofgrains per unit area. Since increase ingrain size is
paralleledbylower ductilityand impact resistance,the questionof general grain size isof great
significance.The additionof certain metals affectsgrain size,for example vanadiumand aluminum
tend to give steel a fine grain. The ASTM has setup a grain size standard for steels,andthe
McQuaid-EhnTest has beendevelopedasa methodof measurement.(2) Average diameterof
grains in the metal under consideration,or alternatively,the numberof grains per unit area. Since
increase in grain size is paralleledbylower ductilityand impact resistance,the questionofgeneral
grain size is of great significance.The additionof certain metals affectsgrain size,for example
vanadium and aluminumten to give steel a fine grain.
Grains- Individual crystals in metals.
Granular Fracture - A type of irregularsurface producedwhen metal fractures, characterized by a
rough, grain like appearance as differentiatedfroma smooth silky,or fibrous,type.It can be sub
classifiedintotrans-granular and inter-granularforms..This type of fracture is frequentlycalled
crystalline fracture, but the implicationthat the metal has crystallizediscompletelymisleading.
Granulated- A coarse grain or pebblysurface conditionwhich becomesevidentduringdrawing.
Granulation- The formation ofgrains immediatelyuponsolidification.
Graphite - The polymorphof carbon with a hexagonal crystal structure.
Graphitization- Formationof graphite in ironor steel.Primary graphitizationrefersto formation
of graphite during solidification.Secondarygraphitizationrefersto later formation during heat
treatment.
Graphitizing- A heating and coolingprocess by which the combinedcarbon in cast iron or steel is
transformed,whollyor partly, to graphitic or free carbon. Annealinga ferrous alloyin such a way
that some or all of the carbon is precipitatedas graphite.
Gray Cast Iron - A cast iron that givesa gray fracture due to the presence offlake graphite. Often
calledgray iron.

Glossary of-metalworking-terms

Glossary of-metalworking-terms

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