Presentation made to the SEAPA Regional Forum and Workshop on Media Ethics and Elections in Southeast Asia, February 25th, 2014.

1. Dr Tessa Houghton
Centre for the Study of
Communications & Culture
University of Nottingham
Malaysia Campus

2. If people use the mass media to inform
themselves about their society and about
the performance of their politicians, and if
they use this information to direct their
political choices and participation, then
inadequate or inaccurate information is
liable to result in misconceived political
acts. (Street, 2001: 257)

3. Interpretive Framework
Politics is necessarily a heavily mediated process.
● Citizens in complex modern societies learn about their political
environment via the media – mediated public spheres.
(1)
● Political participation is enabled via information provision.
(2)
● Professional journalism – norm of objectivity/balance.
Interpretive frame for results:
● Political economic control of Malaysian media ecosystem.
● Socialisation of media personnel in line with this political
economic climate.
(1) Street, J. (2001). Mass Media, Politics, & Democracy. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
(2) Bennett, W. L. (2001). News: The Politics of Illusion. New York: Addison Wesley
Longman. [and] Entman, R. (1989). Democracy Without Citizens: Media and the Decay of
American Politics.

4. Methodology:
Sentence-level quantitative content analysis
● Sentence-level vs. article-level.
● Size of project, objectivity, more detail.
● Coding matrix/units of analysis – 21 categories (+ operators)
● Most important: (1) Party/Coalition; (2) Politician/Political
Figure (Mention); (3) Politician/Political Figure (Source)
Stories 'coded' were:
Within the Malaysian news section/s of the newspapers, including
the front page, or were the paper's editorial (if they run one); OR
● From pre-defined 'Malaysian News' areas of the news websites
monitored, with 'snapshots' taken at 8pm daily; OR
● Within the TV news broadcasts; AND
● >1/3 about the election, and were news stories as opposed to
columns, opinion pieces, letters, etc. (with the exception of the paper's
own editorial, if present).
●

5. Based on data collected
over 31 days:
7/4/13 – 7/5/13
Sentence-level analysis:
Category + Operator
[+ Tone]
Media Analysed:
Nm = (29 – 1) = 28
Tone =
(1) Positive
(2) Negative
(3) Neutral
(4)Attacking
(5)Attacked
Articles
identified/analysed:
na = 17,000+
Data points
Identified/analysed:
Nd = 450,000+

6. TONE (positive, negative, neutral, attacking, or attacked)
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Determined based on matching each reference to a media
frame or frames, supportable via emotive/descriptive
/subjective language/vocabulary utilised by the either the news
personnel or the source being quoted/paraphrased.
Not based upon coder opinion but on linguistic data.
Coders were instructed to 'code as neutral' whenever there was
a lack of linguistic data to support a positive/negative or
attacking/attacked frame, or whenever they were unsure or
conflicted.
e.g. Hudud =/= inherently negative.
Conservative estimate of bias.
'Political Parties/Coalitions' and 'Politicians/Political Figures
(Mentions)' can be attacked by sources, or be covered
positively/negatively/neutrally.
'Politicians/Political Figures (Sources)' can attack or speak neutrally.

7. e.g. “PM and BN leader Najib Razak said that PR
leader Anwar Ibrahim is a liar and cannot be
trusted.”
Politician mention = Najib = 1 = attacking
Politician mention = Anwar = 1 = attacked
Party mention = BN = 1
Party mention = PR = 1
e.g. “BN's recent sex video smear campaign against
PAS is a sign of desperation.”
Party mention = BN = 1 = negative
Party mention = PAS = 1 = neutral

8. Newspapers
Media Types/
Languages
Television
Peninsular
Online
NTV7 Edition 7
●TV2 English
News
Malaysiakini
English
●The
Malaysian
Insider English
Bernama
East Malaysia
●
NST
●The Star
●The Sun
●
English
Utusan Malaysia
●Sinar Harian
●Harian Metro
●
Bahasa
Malaysia
Oriental Daily
●Sin Chew Jit Poh
●China Press
●
Mandarin
Borneo Post
●Daily Express
●
Utusan Borneo
Sarawak
●Utusan Borneo
Sabah
●
See Hua Daily
Sarawak
●See Hua Daily
Sabah
●
●
TV3 Buletin
Utama
●TV1 Berita
Nasional
●
TV2 Berita
Mandarin
●8TV Mandarin
News
Malaysiakini
BM
●The
Malaysian
Insider BM
Bernama
English
●
●
Bernama
BM
●
●
n/a
N/a

9. Online Bahasa Malaysia
20725
Online English
48783
Televisions Mandarin
8049
Television Bahasa Malaysia
9862
Television English
7478
East Malaysia Print Mandarin
40129
East Malaysia Print Bahasa Malaysia
32253
East Malaysia Print English
52935
Peninsular Print Mandarin
97088
Peninsular Print Bahasa Malaysia
49782
Peninsular Print English
66788
Bernama
16920
0
20000
40000
Data Points
60000
80000
100000
120000

10. Political Parties/Coalitions: Volume of Coverage
Publication Group
BN
PR
Ratio (BN : PR)
Bernama
58.87
36.69
1 : 0.62
Peninsular Print English
45.95
50.47
1 : 1.10
Peninsular Print Bahasa Malaysia
43.06
53.97
1 : 1.25
Peninsular Print Mandarin
48.32
49.53
1 : 1.02
Television English
51.31
33.47
1 : 0.65
Television Bahasa Malaysia
54.68
32.34
1 : 0.59
Television Mandarin
55.55
36.97
1 : 0.67
East Malaysia Print English
51.62
33.21
1 : 0.64
East Malaysia Print Bahasa Malaysia
62.36
28.28
1 : 0.45
East Malaysia Print Mandarin
48.41
40.46
1 : 0.84
Online English
44.18
48.69
1 : 1.10
Online Bahasa Malaysia
46.33
50
1 : 1.08

11. Political Parties/Coalitions: Tone of Coverage

12. Political Parties/Coalitions: Tone of Coverage
Bernama
Positive
Neutral
Independent & Other
Negative
Attacked
Positive
Neutral
PR
Negative
Attacked
Positive
Neutral
BN
Negative
Attacked
0.78
8.49
3.50
4.40
4.24
39.11
75.49
92.86
94.98
52.40
21.01
2.75
0
Coverage Volume
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Online English
Positive
Independent & Other
0.88
Neutral
8.10
Negative
2.28
Attacked
0.97
Positive
PR
40.13
Neutral
49.49
Negative
38.45
Attacked
55.36
Positive
BN
58.99
Neutral
42.41
Negative
59.27
Attacked
Coverage Volume
43.67
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70

13. Politicians/Political Figures: Volume of Coverage
Publication Group
BN
PR
Ratio (BN : PR)
Bernama
54.6
43.89
1 : 0.80
Peninsular Print English
39.62
57.94
1 : 1.46
Peninsular Print Bahasa Malaysia
27.07
69.96
1 : 2.58
Peninsular Print Mandarin
49.47
47.21
1 : 0.95
Television English
75.52
24.66
1 : 0.33
Television Bahasa Malaysia
70.98
25.41
1 : 0.36
Television Mandarin
67.16
32.24
1 : 0.48
East Malaysia Print English
56.96
37.13
1 : 0.65
East Malaysia Print Bahasa Malaysia
68.61
26.45
1 : 0.39
East Malaysia Print Mandarin
54.28
35.4
1 : 0.65
Online English
47.69
46.68
1 : 0.98
Online Bahasa Malaysia
41.17
49.03
1 : 1.19

14. Politicians/Political Figures: Tone of Coverage

15. Politicians/Political Figures: Tone of Coverage
Positive
Independent/ Other
0.79
Neutral
Bernama
3.05
Negative 0.00
Attacked 0.00
Positive
PR
7.11
Neutral
36.84
Negative
92.44
Attacked
94.95
Positive
BN
92.09
Neutral
60.11
Negative
7.56
Attacked
5.05
0
Volume
Positive
Independent/ Other
10
20
30
40
50
60
2.46
Neutral
43.84
Neutral
48.36
Negative
31.60
Attacked
49.48
Positive
53.70
Neutral
45.67
Negative
59.93
Attacked
Volume
100
1.30
Positive
BN
90
8.47
Attacked
PR
80
Online English
5.97
Negative
70
49.22
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70

16. Politicians/Political Figures: Use as Source
Publication Group
BN
PR
Ratio (BN : PR)
Bernama
66.81
3.19
1 : 0.048
Peninsular Print English
62.48
12.14
1 : 0.19
Peninsular Print Bahasa Malaysia
59.73
14.9
1 : 0.25
Peninsular Print Mandarin
43.1
21.97
1 : 0.51
Television English
73.58
3.68
1 : 0.05
Television Bahasa Malaysia
41.78
9.83
1 : 0.24
Television Mandarin
42.99
9.35
1 : 0.22
East Malaysia Print English
51.35
15.99
1 : 0.31
East Malaysia Print Bahasa Malaysia
65.52
10.3
1 : 0.16
East Malaysia Print Mandarin
51.19
29.9
1 : 0.58
Online English
30.24
34.71
1 : 1.15
Online Bahasa Malaysia
48.37
24.56
1 : 0.51

17. Politicians/Political Figures: Use as Source
Bernama
30.01
BN
3.19
66.81
PR
Independent/Other
Online
English
30.24
35.05
BN
PR
34.71
Independent/Other
Online English was the best
case scenario for sourcing
– and were the only media
that used PR as sources
(although only slightly)
more than BN.
Impressive given that they
were barred from UMNO
press conferences.
BUT, when we consider the
fact that we were very
charitable and classed the
EC as independent...

18. Not Watchdogs But Running Dogs...
Malaysian citizens were deprived of fair and objective information about
the political parties/coalitions and politicians/political figures that/who
took part in the 13th Malaysian General Election.
● Exceptions: Online media and Mandarin newspapers.
Malaysian citizens who relied on English and Bahasa Malaysia
newspapers/television as their media source/s during GE13 (by choice or
only options available) were not provided with fair and balanced
information with which to construct informed voting preferences.
● “Misconceived political acts”
Failure to conform to one of, if not the most basic tenet of professional
journalism (the provision of objective or balanced information):
● Dereliction of duty on the part of the Malaysian media/system.
Contributes to Malaysia's continuing status as a neo-authoritarian or
electoralist as opposed to transitioning to fully democratic state.

19. But...
PR control the internet!
Old media = dead!
PR won popular vote!
●
Digital divides
–
–
–
–
–
–
qualitative/multiple
~60%+ Malaysians are online
Broadband even in urban centres in Malaysia is poor quality/high cost.
Voting patterns: rural/older vs. younger/urban
Nothing to do with intelligence, everything to do with access to competing
ideologies, critical/technological literacy, regime propaganda
saturation/artificial economies, and 'media rhythms' or incorporation of
media into life/communal consumption, all set against pervasive
metadiscourses of stability vs. change.
Outlier: PAS's inroads into West Coast Semenanjung – grassroots offline
memetic/viral campaigning: tanks, planes, etc.

20. Social networking (& party organs) will set us free?
Exists in symbiotic ecosystem with mainstream media:
● Reactive, responsive, drawing upon professional media.
● Traditional journalism still essential to macro- and meso-public spheres
–
–
●
●
●
●
Cyberbalkanisation/splinternet - less engagement across difference is not what
Malaysia needs.
This goes for both sides of the political spectrum, both guilty of rigid partisan politics
and the extension of this to their dealings with the media (banning journalists from
PCs)
See also facetious arguments re: Harakah, Keadilan, etc.
Malaysiakini is usually top news site, but multiple BN-media websites are
also highly visited – Sinar Harian was top new site in January 2014
BN know they need to rebrand their media organs and penetrate the online
sphere more effectively: The Malay Mail Online...
Online sphere is not safe: throttling of Mkini during GE13, BBC blocked,
pro-PR FB pages blocked, JAKIM + MCMC threatening to block proShia/anti-hadith content... there is no legislative protection for a free
Malaysian internet.

21. Today: “The paint was splashed on the walls as well as Malaysiakini signboard...
a dead duck was found inside a cardboard box... left beside the main door. It has
a photo of Seputeh member of parliament Teresa Kok taped on it.”

22. Thank you.
Dr. Tessa Houghton
Centre for the Study of Communications & Culture
University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus
tessa.houghton@nottingham.edu.my
https://www.facebook.com/UNMCCSCC
Full paper, including
link to all the
'Watching the Watchdog'
reports available at:
http://bit.ly/
1fLL3pT